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Technical Aid to Upper Peru: The Nordenflicht Expedition
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 February 2009
Extract
The official attitude of the Spanish Bourbons towards scientific improvements was not as obscurantist and immutable as was generally supposed in northern Europe. If the enlightened ideas infiltrating Spain and America were normally regarded with fear and suspicion, information concerning the latest discoveries in the field of the ‘useful sciences’ was eagerly received and pondered, and, where it did not lead to undesirable economic emancipation, it was sometimes even applied.
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References
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9 Ibid.. Nordenflicht to Elhuyar, 8 03 1787.
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13 Ibid.. Elhuyar to Gálvez, 20 04 1787.
14 Ibid.. Elhuyar to Valdés, 15 08. 1787.
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54 See AGN, Potosí 6, 1778−9, 9−6−3–4, ‘ Expediente sobre la construcciòn del Real Socavòn’
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58 See Real Cédula de incorporaciòn del banco de Potosí a la real hacienda y ordenanzas para su régimen y gobierno (Madrid, 1795).
59 It was hoped, for instance, that the discovery of a reliable correlation between the consumption of mercury and the production of silver, would facilitate the detection of fraud and stop the trade in untaxed silver.
60 BM, Add. MS 17,589, ‘ Idea General de las Minas dcl Perú’, anonymous, 1791.
61 Subordinate both to the Visitor-General of Peru and to the Viceroy of Buenos Aires, Escobedo was plagued by contradictory instructions.
62 See Real Cédula de incorporaciòn …, Tít. VI, Ord. I.
63 See AGI, Charcas 438, Report of Miguel Rubín de Celis, 27 11. 1783.Google Scholar
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65 See AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 152, No. 126, ‘Discurso sobre Ia utilidad y medios de fomentar ci trabajo de minas…’, Escobedo, 10 02. 1779.Google Scholar
66 See AGI, Charcas 695, Sanz, to Arredondo, , 26 05 1794.Google Scholar
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68 AGI, Charcas 437, Escobedo, to Gálvez, , 16 06. 1780.Google Scholar
69 AGI, Charcas 435, Escobedo, to Gálvez, , 16 10. 1779, and Escobedo to Manrique, II 02. 1782.Google Scholar
70 See AGI, Buenos Aires 434, Deputies of the Guild to Sanz, 25 04 1789.Google Scholar
71 See AGI, Buenos Aires 76, Loreto to Nordenflicht, 8 Oct. 1788.
72 See AGI, Charcas 700, Nordcnflicht to Valdés, 8 june 1790.
73 AGI, Buenos Aires 76, Loreto to Nordenflicht, 8 Oct. 1788.
74 AGI, Charcas 439, Sanz to Croix, 15 Feb. 1789.
75 See AGI, Buenos Aires 78, Croix to Sanz, 16 Oct. 1789, and Charcas 700, Croix to Vaidés, 30 Oct. 1789.
76 See AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 339, No. 5591,‘ Carta Primera de un mercader a un amigo suyo residente en Buenos Aires …’, 16 Dec. 1790.
77 Casa Nacional de Ia Moneda, Potosí (hereafter CNM), Gobierno, 1789, Nuevo Expediente… para Ia suspension dcl Socavòn de Ia Purísima…’, Decreto, Sanz, March 1789.
78 See AGI, Pianos Buenos Aires, No. 176, for Mothes's ‘Plan del Cerro de Potosí’.
79 CNM, Gobierno, 1789, Report of Mothes, 5 July 1790.
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82 In accordance with the ordinances set up by Escobedo, the shaft was financed by the exchequer out of the profits made by the bank.
83 See RAH, Mata Linares 10, Oflicials of the Bank to Sanz, 6 Dec. 1790.
84 CNM, Gobierno, 1789, ‘Nuevo Expediente…’, Report of Mothes, 5 July 1790.
85 Ibid.. Dihgencia of 9 07 1790.
86 Ibid.. Junta of the Guild, 27 07 1790.
87 See AGI, Charcas 439, Sanz, to Lerena, , 16 Septembr. 1791, and Charcas 700, Sanz, to Lerena, , 24 07 1791.Google Scholar
88 Helms, , op. cit., p. 65.Google Scholar
89 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Lerena, , 24 07 1791. The decree was issued on 10 Feb.1789.Google Scholar
90 See AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Lerena, , 24 07 1279. 3187 workers were employed as against 2106 engaged the previous yearGoogle Scholar
91 I cajòn =50 quittales.
92 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Lerena, , 24 07 1791.Google Scholar
93 AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 362, No. 6344, ‘ Carta anònima en defensa de mineros Contra mineralogistas’, Guanuchiri, , 3 12. 1790.Google Scholar
94 Helms, , op. cit., p. 96.Google Scholar
95 Ibid. p. 74.
96 Ibid. p. 90.
97 Ibid. p. 89.
98 Helms, , op.cit., pp. 70–2.Google Scholar
99 According to Caūete, op. cit., p. 59, and Helms, , p. 71, paco ores, matt in aspect, generally yellowish, but also of various other colours and consistencies, were usually subjected to the process of amalgamation. The harder, generally black and metallic negrillos were more frequently smelted. Mulatos are described as ‘ something between pacos and negrillos ’Mercuno Peruano, ‘Suplemento a los Mercurios de Enero (1791), Diccionario dc algunas voces técnicas de mineralogía …’, p. 8. citation.Google Scholar
100 Helms, , op. cit., p. 71.Google Scholar
101 Ibid. p. 70.
102 The bcncficiador, subordinate to the azoguero, was employed to supervise the amalgamation process. See below, pp. 37–8.
103 Helms, , op. cit., p. 77.Google Scholar
104 Ibid. p. 78.
105 According to the chemists consulted, Helms's diagnosis was wrong. There still appears to be some doubt as to the exact nature and sequence of the Spanish amalgamation process. Mellor, J. W., A Comprehensiuc Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry (r6 vols., London, 1922–1937), iii, p. 304,Google Scholar gives the following tentative explanation of the reactions involved: ‘It is probable that cupric chloride is first formed: 2NaCI+CuSO4=Na2SO4+ CuCI2, and this reacts with the silver sulphidc, forming cuprous and silver chlorides: CuCI2 + Ag2S = 2AgCl + CuS; CuCL2 + CuS = 2CuCI + S; 2CuCI + Ag2S = 2AGCI + Cu2S. The complex sulphides arc likewise decomposed: 2Ag3SbS3+3CuCI2=6AgCI+3CuS+ Sb2S3, and similarly with the arsenic compound Ag3AsS3. Ferric chloride also reacts with the silver sulphide: 2FeCI3+Ag2S=S+2AgCI+2FeC12. The silver chloride dissolves in the brine, and it is then immediately reduced and dissolved by the mercury: AgCI + Hg = Ag+ HgCl.’ See also Bargallò, M., La inineria y la nsctalurgia en la América espaiiola durante la época colonial (Mexico, 1955), P. 194Google Scholar
106 Helms, , op. cit., p. 81.Google Scholar
107 Ibid.. pp. 92–4.
108 Ibid.. p. 95.
109 Where the Indian workers were concerned, Sanz was not exactly noted for excessive humanity.
110 RAH, , Mata Linares 10, Weber to Arredondo, 25 09 1792.Google Scholar
111 AGI, , Charcas 700, Sanz to Gardoquí, 24 10 1792.Google Scholar
112 See AGI, , Charcas 439, Sanz to Loreto, 16 02 1789.Google Scholar
113 See AGI, , Charcas 700, Nordenflicht to Valdés, 1 08 1790.Google Scholar
114 AGN, , Biblioteca Nacional 339, No. 5591, ‘Carta Primera’, 16 12 1790.Google Scholar
115 AGN, , Biblioteca Nacional 339, No. 5591, ‘Carta escrita por un mincro a un amigo suyo del mismo benefico…’, Choquelimpe, 10 07 1791.Google Scholar
116 See above, p. 15.
117 See AGN, , Biblioteca Nacional 362, No. 5591, ‘Carta Primera…’, 16 12 1790.Google Scholar
118 AGI, , Charcas 439, Sanz to Loreto, 16 03 1789.Google Scholar
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120 AGI, Buenos Aires 77, Loreto to Sanz, 34 04 1789.Google Scholar
121 AGI, Charcas 700, Arredondo to Valdés, 28 01 1790.Google Scholar
122 Ibid.. Nordenflicht to Valdés, 28 08 1790.
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125 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz to Valdés, 30 07 1790, and Mcrcurio Peruano, No. 213, 17 01 1793, ‘ Historia del Descubrimiento dcl Cerro de Potosí, pp. 46–7.Google Scholar
126 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz to Valdés, 30 07 1790.Google Scholar
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128 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz to Valdés, 30 07 1790.Google Scholar
129 AGI, Buenos Aires 78, Arredondo to Valdés, 20 05 1790.Google Scholar
130 Ibid.. Arredondo to Lerena, 30 09 1790.
131 AGI, Buenos Aires 121, R.O., Lerena to Arredondo, Aranjuez, 3 07 1791.Google Scholar
132 Valdés to Arredondo, 9 Feb. 5790, cited in AGI, Buenos Aires 78, Arredondo to Valdés. 23 June 1790 and Buenos Aires 109, the same to the same, 29 June 1790.
133 AGI, Buenos Aires 121, R.O. of 3 06 1791.Google Scholar
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135 Helms, , op. cit., p. 84.Google Scholar
136 See AGI, Lima 1360, Dictamen de la Junta, Lima, 8 12 1807.Google Scholar
137 See AGI, Lima 1353, Gil to Lerena, Lima, 26 07 1791.Google Scholar
138 See AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 362, No. 6344, ‘Carta escrita por un minero …’ Choquelimpe, 10 07 1791.Google Scholar
139 See Helms, , op. cit., p. 119.Google Scholar
140 AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 362, No. 6344, ‘Carta escrita por un minero…’, Choquelimpe, 10 07 1791.Google Scholar
141 See AGI,Google Scholar Pianos, Secciòn Minas, No. 27, Diagram of the Barrel-machine, , and Born, , Uber das An quicken der gold- und silberhaltigen Erze, Rohsteine, Schwarzkupfer and Höttensteinc (Vienna, 1786), Tables XX and XXI, which show diagrams of the machine proper and of the individual barrels.Google Scholar
142 See AGI, Buenos Aires 77, Sanz to Croix, it June 1789, and Mercurio Peruano, No. 94, 27 11 1791, ‘Carta de Don Juan Daniel Weber … en respuesta a las del Pseudo Serrano …’, p. 226.Google Scholar
143 AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 362, No. 6344, ‘Carta escrita par un mincro …’, Choquelimpe, 10 07 1791.Google Scholar
144 See Mcrcurio Peruano, No. 94, 27 11 1791, ‘Carta de Don Juan Weber…’, p. 226.
145 AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 362, No. 6344, ‘Carla eserita por un minero…’, Choquclimpe, 10 07 1791.Google Scholar
146 Ibid..
147 RAH, Mata Linares 69, Nordenflicht to Croix, 15 01 1790.Google Scholar
148 AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 362, No. 6344, ‘Carta escrita par un minero…’, Choquelimpe, 10 07 1791.Google Scholar
149 On this laboratory, see below, pp. 37−8.
150 AGI, Charcas 439, Sanz, to Valdés, , 16 03 1789.Google Scholar
151 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Valdés, , 30 07 1790.Google Scholar
152 Ibid..
153 The machine constructed by Helms had also broken down.
154 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Valdés, , 30 07 1790.Google Scholar
155 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Valdés, , 30 07 1790.Google Scholar
156 See Mercurio Peruano, Nos. 216–17, 27 01 1793, ‘Copia del Expediente Jurídico sobrc los barriles amalgamatorios de Potosi’, pp. 66–81.
157 See above, p. 25.
158 75 quintals were processed in the beginning, this quantity was reduced to 621/2 quintals as one barrel broke down. Finally only four barrels, together holding the equivalent of one cajòn, were employed.
159 The grade given in beneficios 1–10 is much higher than that indicated for one cajòn by the ensayc menor, but the grade shown by the ensaye was not always reached in the subsequent twenty beneficios.
160 The slightly different figures given for the buitròn in AGI, Charcas 700, ‘Estado que demuestra la ventaja del nuevo beneficio…, Tomás Erquicia, 3 July 1790, do add up correctly. The figures given for the barrel machine coincide with those of the expediente jaridico.
161 With only two exceptions the ensaye menor indicated a silver content of either 6 marks 2 ounces or 3 marks 1 ounce, a strange uniformity considering the diversity of the ores processed.
162 See Mercurio Peruano, No. 216, 27 07 1793, ‘Copia del expediente jurídico’, Beneficio, No. 10, p. 71.
163 In the last ten beneficios the mercury consumption was given as exactly 1 pound 51/2 ounces, again a strange uniformity.
164 See AGN, Hacienda 76, 1795, 9–33, Exp. 2015, Arredondo to Lerena, 30 Sept. 1790. Arredondo contemplated increasing the quantities of mercury sent to Potosf immediately.Google Scholar
165 Helms, , op. cit., p. 72.Google Scholar
166 AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 339, No. 5591, ‘Carta primera …’, 16 12 1790.Google Scholar
167 See AGI, Charcas 700, experiments undertaken on 1 July 1790 following the Conde's announcement that his machine was ready for testing (Conde to Sanz, 28 June 1790) and an Auto (30 June 1790) ordering public experiments.
168 AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 339. No. 5591, ‘Carta primera …’, 16 Dec. 1790.
169 Helms, , op. cit., p. 83.Google Scholar
170 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Gardoqui, , 24 10 1792.Google Scholar
171 Sanz claimed that the miners had intentionally supplied poor and inadequately ground ore.
172 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Gardoqul, , 24 12 1792.Google Scholar
173 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Gardoqu, , 24 10 1792.Google Scholar
174 Ibid..
175 AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 339, No. 5592, ‘Carta Segunda de un Mercader…’, 31 08 1791.Google Scholar
176 AGE, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Gardoqul, , 24 10 1792.Google Scholar
177 Ibid.
178 See CNM, Real Banco de San Carlos, 1793, Petition of Orueta and Jáuregui, no date (1792).Google Scholar
179 See Mercurio Peruano, No. 49, 19 06 1791, ‘Beneficio de Metales en Potosí, letter of Francisco Rufia, Cantumarca, 54 05 1791, p. 126.
180 Ibid..
181 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Gardoqu, , 24 10 1792.Google Scholar
182 Ibid..
183 The results of these experiments were published in the Mercurio Peruano one month later (No. 49, 19 June 1791). Twelve rather than six days appear to have been involved.
184 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Gardoqul, , 24 10 1792, and RAH, Mata Linares so, Weber to Arredondo, 25 09 1792.Google Scholar
185 It should be remembered that Nordenflicht had promised an increase of 200 percent in the amount of silver produced.
186 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Gardoqul, , 24 10 1792.Google Scholar
187 See Mercurio Peruano, No. 63, 11 08 1791, Nuevos Beneficios de Metales en las Méquinas de Potosí, pp. 272–5, and RAH, Mata Linares io, Weber to Arredondo, 25 09 1792. and RAH, Mata Linares io, Weber, to Arredondo, , 25 09 1792.Google Scholar
188 Mcrcurio Peruano, No. 23, 20 03 1791, Rufia to the Archbishop of Lima, 15 02 1791, p. 219.
189 Ibid.. ‘Adiciones de la Sociedad’, p. 220.
190 The editors refer to it thus in their first number of a Jan. 1791.
191 Mercurio Peruano, No. 23, 20 03 1791, ‘Adiciones de la Sociedad’, p. 220.
192 Ibid..
193 Mcrcurio Peruano, No. 63, 11 08 1791, ‘Nuevos Beneficios en las Méquinas de Potosi’, p. 267.
194 Helms, , op. cit., p. 83.Google Scholar
195 AGI, , Charcas 700, Arredondo, to Gardoqul, , 6 12 1792.Google Scholar
196 Ibid..
197 Mcrcurio Peruano, No. 23, 20 03 5791, ‘ Adiciones de Ia Sociedad’, p. 220.
198 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz, to Valdés, , 30 07 1790.Google Scholar
199 Helms, , op. cit., p. 97.Google Scholar
200 Barba, A. Alonso, Arte dc los Metaics (Madrid, 1640), f. 38v.Google Scholar
201 Helms, , op. Cit., p. 91.Google Scholar
202 Ibid.. and RAH, Mata Linares so, Weber to Arredondo, 25 09 1792.Google Scholar
203 Helms, , op. Cit., p. 96.Google Scholar
204 Helms, , op. Cit., pp. 84–5.Google Scholar
205 Ibid.. p. 86.
206 Ibid..
207 See Mcrcurio Pcruano, No. 96, 4 12 1791, ‘Carta de Don Juan Daniel Weber (contcont.)’, p. 243.
208 AGI, Charcas 700, Sanz to Valdés, 30 J July 1790.
209 Mercurio Peruano, No. 96, 4 dec. 2791, Carta de Don Juan Daniel Weber (cont.), p. 243.
210 AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 339, No. 5592, “ “ Carta segunda…’, 31 Aug. 1791.
211 AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 362, No. 6344, ‘Carta anònima de mineros contra mineralogistas …, Guanuchiri, 3 12 1791.Google Scholar
212 AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 339, No. 5591, ‘Carta primera…’, 16 12 1790.Google Scholar
213 Ibid..
214 AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 362, No. 6343, ‘Diario lievado en Ia Villa de Potosí de Los ensayes hechos por el Baròn de Nordenflicht…’, Tarapaya,4 02 1790.Google Scholar
215 Ibid.. No. 6344, ‘Carta escrita por un minero…’, Choquelimpe, 10 07 1791.
216 Ibid.. ‘Carta anónima de mineros contra mineralogistas…, Guarochiri, 3 12 1791.
217 Ibid.
218 Ibid.
219 See Diario de Linia, Nos. 311 (7 08 1791), 315 (1, 08 1791), 358 (14 08 1791) and especially Nos. 322 (18 08 1791) and 334 (30 08 1791) containing various letters and the ‘ Reflexioncs del Buen Serrano sobre el Contenido del Mercurio No. 63'.
220 AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 362, No. 6344, Carta anònima de mineros contra mineralogistas…’, Guanuchiri, 3 12 1791.Google Scholar
221 Helms, , op. cit., p. 252.Google Scholar
222 Reproduced in André, op. cit., p. 294.
223 In Mexico the Germans were more successful. As it gives the Spaniards their full due, Sonneschmid's, F. T.Bcschreibung der Spanischen Amalgamation (Gotha, 1810) is a masterpiece of tact and diplomacy. It was acknowledged to be accurate and useful by the Mexican miners.Google Scholar
224 Helms, , op. cit., p. 57.Google Scholar
225 Ibid..
226 Ibid.. pp. 117–18.
227 Ibid.. p. 17.
228 AGI, Lima 2356, Olier, to Crown, , Buenos Aires, 26 10 1792.Google Scholar
229 See André, , op. cit., p. 301.Google Scholar
230 See AGI, Charcas 439, Sanz to Croix, 15 02 1789.Google Scholar
231 See AGN, Biblioteca Nacional 362, No. 6343, ‘Diario llevado en la Villa de Potosí. Tarapaya, 4 02 1790.Google Scholar
232 AGI, Lima 2360, Avilés to the Ministro de Real Hacienda, 8 03 1805.Google Scholar
233 Witness the lack of realism displayed in Nordenflicht's ‘ Tratado: Del arreglo y reforma que conviene introducir en la Minerífa del Reyno del Perú…’ published in Rcuista de la Biblioteca Nacional, xiv (1940), pp. 319–429.
234 Nordenflicht was to dwell on this point long after Stanislav Poniatovsky had abdicated and the Poland he knew had ceased to exist.
235 See André, , op. Cit., p. 306.Google Scholar
236 AGI, Indiferente General 1798, Elhuyar to Gàlvez, 20 04 1787.Google Scholar
237 See ‘ Des Herrn Johann Daniel Webers Gutachten öber die in Niederungarn eingeleitete Anquickung der Silbererze’ in Congress, of Glashötte, , op. cit., p. 127.Google Scholar
238 See RAH, Mata Linares 10,Google ScholarWeber, to Arredondo, , 25 09 1792,Google Scholar and Mercurio Peruano, Nos. 94, 27 11 1791, pp. 217–29, and 95, 1 12 1791, pp. 235–9, ‘Carta de Don Juan Daniel Weber …. en respuesta a las del Pseudo Serrano…’
239 Because he criticized Pedro Vicente Caūete's cherished Còdigo Carolino de las Minas de Potosí…, comparing them unfavourably with the mining code of New Spain (RAH, Mata Linares 10, Weber, to Arredondo, , 25 09 1792),Google Scholar Weber aroused the enmity of the assessor, who did his best to procure the dismissal of the German from his functions in Potosf. (See AGI, Buenos Aires 441, Cañete, to Soler, , 26 06 1803)Google Scholar This was not apparently achieved until 1811, when the revolutionary government contested Weber's rights to draw his salary. (See CNM, Junta Gubernativa, 1811, Intendant to the Junta Gubcrnativa, 27 02 1811.) The adit was discontinued.Google Scholar
240 AGI, Indiferente General 1798, Elhuyar, to Gélvcz, , 25 06 1787.Google Scholar
241 These mines were situated in the Asiento de Aullagas in the Partido of Chayanta.
242 CNM, Gobierno, 1792–1804, ‘Expediente de la Obra del Socavòn de San Bartolomé…’ Proyecto, Weber, 11 12 1792.Google Scholar
243 Ordenanzas del Perù (Lima, 1752), Ord. 18, Tit. 3, Libro III.
244 CNM, Gobierno, 1792–0804, Proyecto, Weber, 11 12 1792.Google Scholar
245 Ibid..
246 Ibid..
247 Ibid..
248 Ibid. ‘Testimonio del Expediente sobre los reconocimientos de los desagues de las vetas…’Petition, José Antonio de Amaral to the Alcalde Ordinario, no date (1804).
249 CNM, Real Banco San Carlos, 1806, Weber to Sanz, no date (1806).Google Scholar
250 CNM, Real Banco San Carlos, 1811, Petition of Francisco Lleras Manjòn, no date (04, 1811).Google Scholar
251 See Ibid..
252 Their term of Contract ended in 1797.
253 AGIIndiferente General 2799, Medical Certificate, 11 1792.Google Scholar
254 Ibid.. Decree of Gil, 21 11 1792.
255 Ibid.. Helms to Gil, 4 11 1792.
256 Helms, , op. cit., p. 253.Google Scholar
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