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‘It Does Not Even Seem Like We Are in Brazil’: Country Clubs and Gated Communities in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 1951–1964

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 September 2012

REGINA HORTA DUARTE
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Abstract

This study focuses on the first gated communities in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, which were developed between 1951 and 1964. In an era of democracy and economic growth, the Brazilian government promoted infrastructural improvements and attracted foreign capital. However, there was a concomitant increase in inequality and poverty, and deep-rooted political conflicts. Notwithstanding the varying motivations of those who chose to live in gated communities, this article argues that the attempt by elites to establish a lifestyle of leisure and European-style sophistication in these enclaves had political, ethnic, class and gender implications. Their self-segregation strengthened the patrimonialism and authoritarianism in politics that would prevail during the ensuing military dictatorship.

Spanish abstract

Este estudio se centra en las primeras comunidades amuralladas en Belo Horizonte, Brasil, que se desarrollaron entre 1951 y 1964. En una era de democracia y de crecimiento económico, el gobierno brasileño promovió mejoras de infraestructura y atrajo capital extranjero. Sin embargo, hubo por igual un incremento en la desigualdad y la pobreza, así como profundos conflictos políticos. Independientemente de las diferentes motivaciones de quienes escogieron vivir en comunidades amuralladas, este artículo señala que el intento de las élites para establecer un estilo de vida de ocio y de sofisticación europea en estos enclaves tuvo implicaciones políticas, étnicas, de clase y de género. Su autosegregación fortaleció el patrimonialismo y autoritarismo en la política, lo que prevalecería durante la dictadura militar que le siguió.

Portuguese abstract

Este estudo focaliza os primeiros condomínios privados em Belo Horizonte, Brasil, entre 1951 e 1964. Numa era de democracia e crescimento econômico, o governo brasileiro promoveu melhorias de infraestrutura e atraiu o capital estrangeiro. Entretanto, simultaneamente cresceram a desigualdade, a pobreza e profundos conflitos políticos. Sem menosprezar as diferenças de motivações entre os proprietários dos condomínios, este artigo argumenta como o esforço das elites para estabelecer ali um estilo sofisticado de vida e lazer possuía implicações políticas, raciais, classistas e de gênero. A autosegregação fortaleceu o patrimonialismo e o autoritarismo que prevaleceriam na ditadura militar.

Keywords

gated communitiespatrimonialismsocial segregationBrazilcomunidades amuralladaspatrimonialismosegregación socialBrasilcondomínios privadospatrimonialismosegregação socialBrasil
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Latin American Studies , Volume 44 , Issue 3 , August 2012 , pp. 435 - 466
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

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References

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10 McKenzie, Evan, Privatopia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), pp. 8–21Google Scholar. The fatal shooting of Trayvon Martin, a black teenager who was visiting his father in a gated community in Florida, in February 2012, exemplifies tragically how these regulations can be arbitrary. Martin was shot by one of the residents, volunteering for the neighbourhood watch organised by the homeowners' association. See www.guardian.co.uk/world/trayvon-martin.

11 Svampa, Los que ganáron, p. 47; Coy, ‘Gated Communities’, p. 124; Dam, ‘La ocupación del desierto’, p. 57; Borsdof, Hidalgo and Sánchez, ‘A New Model’, p. 377.

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13 Antonio Paixão, ‘Crimes e criminosos em Belo Horizonte, 1932–1978’, in Sérgio Pinheiro (ed.), Crime, violência e poder (São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1983), pp. 11–44.

14 The word ‘shorts’ is in English in the original document, demonstrating the use of foreign terms by the columnist as a sign of sophistication.

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17 Neves, Sergio, ‘Clube nobre’, Estado de Minas, 9 Dec. 1962, p. 12Google Scholar; ‘Retiro das Pedras: o bairro-clube mais admirado dentro e fora do país’, Estado de Minas, 20 Sep. 1964, p. 14.

18 The average annual temperature in Belo Horizonte in the period 1960–90 was 21.2°C (70.2°F). The average altitude in the centre of the city is 800 metres. The mountainous areas in the region have an average annual temperature of 18°C, with great variation between the days and nights. Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária, Banco de dados climáticos do Brasil, available at www.embrapa.br; Antonio Moura, ‘Alterações espaciais no eixo BR040/Sul como resultado da expansão da Região Metropolitana de BH’, unpubl. Master's diss., PUC-Minas, 2002, pp. 50–1.

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20 Svampa, Los que ganaron, p. 5; Guy Thuillier, ‘Gated Communities in the Metropolitan Area of Buenos Aires’, in Rowland Atkinson and Sarah Blandy (eds.), Gated Communities (New York: Routledge, 2006), p. 68; Alejandro Pizzolon, Lagomar Country Club: una historia de 50 años de sueños, obras y realizaciones, available at clagomar.com/documentos/historia.pdf.

21 Claudia Guedes, Susan Zeff and Plínio Negreiros, ‘Clubes de imigrantes em São Paulo’, in Lamartine DaCosta (ed.), Atlas do Esporte no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: CONFEF, 2006), pp. 6, 24–6.

22 Belo Horizonte has had sports clubs since the 1930s, but the developments analysed here included new elements. Because the sports clubs were located outside the limits of Belo Horizonte, they were close to the wealthiest residential districts in the southern area. The clubs offered vacant lots for building houses that, over the years, became year-round residences for many families. Today, the area has one of the highest concentrations of private gated communities in the metropolitan region of Belo Horizonte. For an analysis of current expansion patterns, see Costa (ed.), Novas periferias metropolitanas.

23 Carsalade, Flavio, Pampulha (Belo Horizonte: Conceito, 2007)Google Scholar; Kubitschek, Juscelino, Relatório sobre a Pampulha (Belo Horizonte: Prefeitura de Belo Horizonte, 1947)Google Scholar, Arquivo Público da Cidade de Belo Horizonte, seção Relatórios de Prefeitos; Pimentel, Thais, Pampulha Múltipla (Belo Horizonte: Museu Histórico Abílio Barreto, 2007)Google Scholar. Kubitschek was mayor of Belo Horizonte (1940–5), governor of Minas Gerais state (1951–5) and finally president of the Brazilian Republic (1956–61).

24 Currently, seven private gated communities surround these clubs, which have been pressured to subdivide their land. Otavio Toledo, ‘Vale em perigo’, Hoje em Dia, 27 June 2005, p. 8.

25 See www.ccbh.com.br/novo/index.php; and Estatutos do Serra D'el Rey Country Club (Belo Horizonte, 1962), Arquivo do Serra del Rey Country Club, Nova Lima, Brazil. Frederico was a nephew of Francisco de Assis Chateaubriand, a Brazilian mass media magnate.

26 Moura, ‘Alterações espaciais’, pp. 97–101; Memorial para registro do plano de loteamento ‘Unidade de Vizinhança Quintas do Morro do Chapéu’, 14 Dec. 1957, Arquivo do Morro do Chapéu, Nova Lima, Brazil; Morro do Chapéu, 40 anos (Belo Horizonte: n.p., 1998); Morro do Chapéu Golfe Clube: 50 anos (Belo Horizonte: Quanta, 2008); interview with Heloisa Carneiro de Resende Lima, wife of Eloy Lima, founder of Morro do Chapeú, Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 1998, Arquivo do Morro do Chapéu, Nova Lima, Brazil.

27 Behring and Monte-Mór, ‘Dinâmica do crescimento’, pp. 291–311; Andrade, ‘Os condomínios fechados’, pp. 275–89.

28 O Cruzeiro (Rio de Janeiro), 15 Oct. 1960; Pinheiro, Gil, ‘A jovem Belo Horizonte’, Manchete (Rio de Janeiro), 19 Feb. 1963, pp. 54–8Google Scholar.

29 ‘Residência no Morro, proprietário Francisco Longo’, Estado de Minas, Imobiliário, 10 July 1960, p. 1; ‘Residência no Morro, proprietário Moacir Oliveira’, Estado de Minas, Imobiliário, 24 July 1960, p. 8; ‘Morro’, Estado de Minas, Caderno 2, 25 Jan. 1962, p. 5.

30 Interview with Eduardo Cisalpino, Belo Horizonte, 8 April 2011. The same events are confirmed by Helvecio Ferreira Borges (interviewed in Belo Horizonte, 6 May 2011). The two men were among the first ten owners of the Morro property in 1959. At that time, Cisalpino was 30 years old. Borges, also a doctor, was 32.

31 Badminton became an official sport in Brazil only in 1980, which demonstrates how pioneering the Retiro proposal was. See www.badminton.org.br.

32 The social columns boasted of the sophistication of the elites: see ‘Um clube britânico na Serra D'el Rey’, Estado de Minas, 15 April 1962, p. 5; ‘Morro do Chapéu’, Estado de Minas, 27 July 1961, Caderno 2, p. 4; Eduardo Couri, ‘Morro do Chapéu com vida nova’, Estado de Minas, 14 April 1968, Caderno 3, p. 5; ‘Bal Masquê’, Estado de Minas, 13 March 1963, Caderno 2, p. 5; and ‘Cães desfilam sua moda’, Revista Alterosa (Belo Horizonte), 24: 359 (1962), pp. 24–31. See also, by Wilson Frade, ‘Notas de um repórter social’, Estado de Minas, 3 March 1961, Caderno 2, p. 3; ‘Noite nos Alpes’, Estado de Minas, 2 Aug. 1963, p. 6; and ‘Almoço no Morro’, Estado de Minas, 4 Nov. 1969, Caderno 3, p. 3.

33 See Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, IBGE), www.ibge.gov.br. On the social conditions in Belo Horizonte in the 1950s and the start of the 1960s, see de Belo Horizonte, Prefeitura, Relatórios Anuais de Prefeitos, BH (Belo Horizonte: PBH, 1950–64)Google Scholar, Arquivo Público Mineiro Belo Horizonte, Brazil; and Cenas de um Belo Horizonte (Belo Horizonte: PBH, 1994), pp. 86–94; PLAMBEL, O processo de desenvolvimento em Belo Horizonte, 1897–1970, vol. 2 (Belo Horizonte: PLAMBEL/MG, 1974), pp. 258–311; and O desenvolvimento econômico e social da região metropolitana de Belo Horizonte: demografia (Belo Horizonte: PLAMBEL/MG, 1974), pp. 3–7; Somarriba, Maria, Lutas urbanas em Belo Horizonte (Belo Horizonte: Vozes, 1984), pp. 35–44Google Scholar; and Horta Duarte, Regina, ‘Urban Trees and Urban Environmental History in a Latin American City’, Global Environment, 2: 3 (2009), pp. 120–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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35 Prefeitura de Belo Horizonte, O desenvolvimento econômico e social, pp. 3–7; Governo de Minas, Levantamento da população favelada, pp. 9–16; Watanabe, Hiroshi and Braga, Welber, Morro do Querosene: alguns aspectos da formação de uma favela (Belo Horizonte: Faculdade de Filosofia UMG, 1960), pp. 13–35Google Scholar; Robson Marques, ‘Região de Belo Horizonte e a urbanização’, in Regina Medeiros (ed.), Permanências e mudanças em Belo Horizonte (Belo Horizonte: Autêntica, 2001), pp. 113–39.

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38 ‘Mendicância em larga escala’, Estado de Minas, 21 May 1961, p. 4; ‘Um desprimor para a cidade’, Estado de Minas, 4 Nov. 1961, p. 4.

39 Dulci, Otávio, Política e recuperação econômica em Minas Gerais (Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 1999), pp. 53–8, 77–91, 105Google Scholar; Clelio Diniz, Estado e capital estrangeiro na industrialização mineira (Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 1981), pp. 61–71.

40 João Mello and Fernando Novais, ‘Capitalismo tardio e sociabilidade moderna’, in Lilia Schwarcz (ed.), Historia da vida privada no Brasil, vol. 4: Contrastes da intimidade contemporânea (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1998), pp. 562–74; Verena Alberti, ‘O século do moderno: modos de vida e consumo na República’, in Angela Gomes, Dulce Pandolfi and Verena Alberti (eds.), A República no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 2002), pp. 302–19; Vânia Moreira, ‘Os anos JK’, in Jorge Ferreira and Lucília Delgado (eds.), O Brasil republicano, vol. 3: O tempo da experiência democrática (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2003), pp. 159–65. On the Brazilian middle class, see Décio Saes, Classe média e sistema político no Brasil (São Paulo: T. A. Queiroz, 1984); and Brian Owensby, Intimate Ironies: Modernity and the Making of Middle-Class Lives in Brazil (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999).

41 Diniz, Estado e capital, pp. 72–97; Dulci, Política e recuperação, pp. 93–105.

42 Diniz, Estado e capital, pp. 72–97; Dulci, Política e recuperação, pp. 93–105.

43 Angela Gomes, ‘Economia e trabalho no Brasil republicano’, in Gomes, Pandolfi and Alberti (eds.), A República no Brasil, pp. 253–59; Diniz, Estado e capital, p. 226.

44 Ibid., p. 21; Eakin, Marshall, Tropical Capitalism: The Industrialization of Belo Horizonte (New York: Palgrave, 2001), pp. 3–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45 Ibid., pp. 108–27; Dulci, Política e recuperação, pp. 160–83.

46 At the end of the 1950s, there were 11 automobile-makers in Brazil: Ford, General Motors, Simca, Vemag, Volkswagen, Willis, Internacional Harvester, Mercedes-Benz, Scania Vabis, Toyota and Fábrica Nacional de Motores. Wolfe, Joel, Autos and Progress: The Brazilian Search for Modernity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 113–77Google Scholar. See also Helen Shapiro, ‘A primeira migração das montadoras: 1956–1968’, in Glauco Arbix and Mauro Zilbovicius (eds.), De JK a FHC, a reinvenção dos carros (São Paulo: Scritta, 1977), pp. 23–87. On the automobile industry's working class, see Negro, Antonio, Linhas de Montagem: o Industrialismo Nacional-Desenvolvimentista e a Sindicalização dos Trabalhadores (São Paulo: Boitempo, 2004)Google Scholar.

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50 In 1960, approximately 69 million people embarked on tourist travel, 73 per cent of whom visited European countries, according to the World Tourism Organisation. See Lickorish, Leonard and Kenkins, Carson, Introdução ao turismo (Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier, 2000), pp. 22–3Google Scholar; Barretto, Margarita, Manual de iniciação ao estudo do turismo (São Paulo: Papirus, 1995), p. 54Google Scholar; Boyer, Marc, Historia do turismo de massa (São Paulo: EDUSC, 2003)Google Scholar; and Baranowski, Shelley, ‘Common Ground: Linking Transport and Tourism History’, Journal of Transport History, 28: 1 (2007), pp. 120–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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52 Pereira, Ligia and Faria, Maria, Aeroporto da Pampulha: Belo Horizonte nas asas do progresso (Belo Horizonte: Infraero, 1997), p. 45Google Scholar; Tabosa, História da aviação comercial, p. 229.

53 Eakin, Marshall, British Enterprise in Brazil: The St. John D'el Rey Mining Company and the Morro Velho Gold Mine, 1830–1960 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1989)Google Scholar; Libby, Douglas, Trabalho e capital estrangeiro no Brasil: o caso de Morro Velho (Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1984)Google Scholar.

54 Frade, Wilson, ‘Notas de um repórter social’, Estado de Minas, Caderno 2, 25 Jan. 1962, p. 5Google Scholar; ‘Almoço no Morro’, Estado de Minas, Caderno 2, 15 Oct. 1963, p. 5; and ‘Golfe é a atração do Morro do Chapéu’, Estado de Minas, Esportes, 28 April 1968, p. 4.

55 Michel Le Ven and Magda Neves, ‘Belo Horizonte: trabalho e sindicato, cidade e cidadania (1897–1990)’, in Luis Dulci and Magda Neves (eds.), Belo Horizonte : poder, política e movimentos sociais (Belo Horizonte: C/Arte, 1996), pp. 86–90.

56 The word ‘businessmen’ is in English in the original document.

57 Samuel Werneck interviewed by Amaury Valerio, Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 20 May 1962, in Estado de Minas, 24 May 1962, p. 5. For conditions on approving members, see Estatutos do Serra D'El Rey Country Club, pp. 6–7. For examples of newspaper advertisements for the club, see Estado de Minas, 16 March 1962, p. 9; 6 April 1962, p. 9; and 26 April 1962, Caderno 2, p. 4.

58 Thirty-seven of these announcements were published in Estado de Minas, and in total, they presented 148 buyers during the first phase of sales. For an example, see ‘Quadro social do Serra D'el Rey Country Club’, Estado de Minas, 25 July 1962, p. 7. On women in Minas Gerais in the 1960s, see Starling, Heloisa, Os senhores das Gerais (5th edition, Petrópolis: Vozes, 1986), pp. 151–92Google Scholar.

59 Once characteristic of the Atlantic rainforest, common throughout south-eastern Brazil and Bahia, Dalbergia nigra was used worldwide in musical instrument construction but is now threatened with extinction. Lorenzi, Árvores brasileiras, p. 215.

60 Eakin, British Enterprise in Brazil, pp. 231–61. For information regarding the British community surrounding the mine of Mariana, approximately 100 kilometres from Belo Horizonte, see Rafael F. Souza, ‘Trabalho e cotidiano na mineração aurífera inglesa em Minas Gerais’, unpubl. PhD diss., Universidade de São Paulo, 2009, pp. 301–16.

61 Interview with Samuel Werneck, 20 May 1962, in Estado de Minas, 24 May 1962. See also ‘Um clube britânico na Serra D'el Rey’, Estado de Minas, 15 April 1962, p. 5; and ‘O campo na cidade e a cidade no campo’, Estado de Minas, 13 May 1962, p. 8.

62 de Holanda, Sergio B., Raízes do Brasil (23rd edition, Rio de Janeiro: José Olympio, 1991), pp. 105–6Google Scholar; Mattos, O tempo saquarema, p. 112; DaMatta, Roberto, O que é o Brasil? (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Rocco, 2004), p. 53Google Scholar; Skidmore, Thomas, Uma história do Brasil (São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2003), p. 201Google Scholar; José Murilo de Carvalho, ‘Passado, presente e futuro da corrupção brasileira’, in Leo Avritzer (ed.), Corrupção: ensaios e críticas (Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2008), p. 239.

63 Anna Marina Vianna de Siqueira interviewed by Regina Horta Duarte, Belo Horizonte, 25 April 2011. Born in 1934 in Santa Luzia, Minas Gerais, she is the wife of one of the entrepreneurs of Serra, the journalist Cyro Siqueira, and she was responsible for decorating the clubhouse. The feeling of prestige shared by the members of the club is also confirmed by Fausto Vieira da Cunha Pereira (current director of Serra D'el Rey, born in 1955, son of one of the first partners and a visitor since infancy), interviewed by Regina Horta Duarte, Nova Lima, 13 April 2011.

64 Eakin, Tropical Capitalism, pp. 89–128; Dulci, Política e recuperação.

65 Mannesman, a German steel company, began work in Belo Horizonte in 1954. The Usiminas steel company combined Japanese and state capital and was inaugurated in 1958. Belgo-Mineira has operated in Minas Gerais since 1922. The Saint John D'el Rey Mining Company was British and was established in Minas in 1830; the firm was incorporated at the end of the 1950s by the North American Hanna Corporation. Eakin, British Enterprise in Brazil; Dulci, Política e recuperação, pp. 93–105; Diniz, Estado e capital, pp. 85–91; Silva, Olintho, ‘A mineração em Minas Gerais, passado, presente e futuro’, Geonomos, 3: 1 (1995), pp. 77–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

66 Interview with Heloisa Lima, Morro do Chapéu, 40 anos, pp. 12–13; ‘Projeto’, Estado de Minas, 12 July 1973, Caderno 2, p. 3; Law 2.042 of 7 Jan. 1960, Legislação do Estado de Minas Gerais (Belo Horizonte: Lex Ltda, 1961), p. 4.

67 ‘Semana em sociedade’, Estado de Minas, 24 Jan. 1960, Caderno 2, p. 5; ‘Almoço no Morro’, Estado de Minas, 15 Oct. 1963, Caderno 2, p. 5. Wilson Frade, ‘Notas de um repórter social’, Estado de Minas, 25 Jan. 1962, Caderno 2, p. 5, and 1 March 1961, Caderno 2, p. 3.

68 Holanda, Raízes do Brasil, pp. 101–12.

69 The jeitinho (‘knack’) is a strategy for obtaining privileges – whether to gain benefits or to escape punishment – based on established relationships of intimacy and protection. DaMatta, O que é o Brasil?, p. 48.

70 Roberto DaMatta, ‘Você sabe com quem está falando?’, in DaMatta (ed.), Carnavais, malandros e heróis (2nd edition, Rio de Janeiro: Zahar, 1980), pp. 139–93.

71 Interview with Samuel Werneck, 20 May 1962, in Estado de Minas, 24 May 1962, p. 5.

72 On the slaveholding culture in Minas Gerais, see Roberto Martins, ‘Growing in the Silence: The Slave Economy of Nineteenth-Century Minas Gerais, Brazil’, unpubl. PhD diss, Vanderbilt University, 1980; Libby, Douglas, Transformação e trabalho em uma economia escravista: Minas Gerais no século XIX (São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1988)Google Scholar; Paiva, Eduardo, Escravidão e universo cultural na colônia: Minas Gerais, 1716–1789 (Belo Horizonte: Editora UFMG, 2001)Google Scholar; Furtado, Junia, Chica da Silva: A Brazilian Slave of the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009)Google Scholar; and Gonçalves, Andrea Lisly, Às margens da liberdade: estudo sobre a prática de alforrias em Minas colonial e provincial (Belo Horizonte: Fino Traço/FAPEMIG, 2011)Google Scholar. On the post-abolitionist period in Minas Gerais and the ex-slaves’ life conditions, see de Souza, Sonia Maria, Terra, família e solidariedade (Bauru: EDUSC, 2007)Google Scholar.

73 ‘Quadro social do Serra D'el Rey Country Club’, Estado de Minas, 25 July 1962. Law 1390 of 3 July 1951 prohibited racial discrimination in Brazil. The club's statutes did not include any racial criteria, but their vagueness left room for illegal behaviour. For buyers to be admitted, they first had to be accepted by the board. Estatutos do Serra D'el Rey Country Club, p. 6.

74 Interview with Gil Cesar Moreira de Abreu, Estado de Minas, 4 Sep. 1962, p. 5.

75 Governo de Minas, Levantamento da população favelada, pp. 16–20.

76 Starling, Os senhores das Gerais, pp. 44–7; Jorge Ferreira, ‘O governo Goulart e o golpe civil-militar de 1964’, in Ferreira and Delgado (eds.), O Brasil republicano, p. 359.

77 Dreyfuss, René, 1964: a conquista do Estado (Rio de Janeiro: Vozes, 1981), pp. 102–10Google Scholar; Jorge Ferreira, ‘Crises da República: 1954, 1955 e 1961’, in Ferreira and Delgado (eds.), O Brasil republicano, pp. 326–36; Ferreira, ‘O governo Goulart e o golpe’, pp. 359–60; Skidmore, Uma historia do Brasil, pp. 209–13; Iglesias, Francisco, Trajetória política do Brasil (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1995), pp. 270–93Google Scholar.

78 For the names of politicians and businessmen who were members of IPES, see Starling, Os senhores das Gerais, pp. 337–66. On the popular mobilisation, see Ferreira, ‘O governo Goulart e o golpe’, pp. 343–404.

79 Freitas, Marcelo, Não foi por acaso: a história dos trabalhadores que construíram a Usiminas (Belo Horizonte: Comunicação de Fato Editora, 2010)Google Scholar.

80 See, for example, Frade, Wilson, ‘Notas de um repórter social’, Estado de Minas, 21 April 1964, p. 12, and 26 April 1964, p. 12Google Scholar. On Magalhães Pinto, see Eakin, Tropical Capitalism, pp. 121–3.

81 The word ‘snob’ is in English in the original document.

82 ‘Morro Travestido’, Estado de Minas, 14 Sep. 1965, Caderno 2, p. 9.

83 ‘Um pouco pra frente’, Estado de Minas, 4 Feb. 1970, Caderno 3, p. 3.

84 Murilo Cisalpino, history teacher, born in Belo Horizonte in 1958, interviewed by Regina Horta Duarte, Timóteo, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 29 Oct. 2011. Murilo is the son of one of the first owners, Eduardo Cisalpino, cited above.

85 This happened in 2010, when the IBGE, whose results are essential to the development of public policy, began to work on the census. ‘Eduardo Nunes, entrevistado’, O Globo (Rio de Janeiro), 3 July 2010.