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Delineating the Peace: Marking Oaxaca's State Boundaries, 1856–1912

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 April 2017

DANIEL NEWCOMER
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Abstract

This article analyses efforts by the state of Oaxaca to mark its border from 1856 to 1912. State officials hoped to demarcate a permanent border along the frontier as a way to delineate a peaceful ending to on-going boundary disputes, some of which allegedly dated to pre-Columbian times. The activity of marking Oaxaca's boundary effectively represented a literal process of Mexican state formation. Oaxaca officials attempted to negotiate the state's jurisdictional limits in cooperation with other federations as well as with their own citizens as they located the parameters of the state and the limits of its authority during the era.

Spanish abstract

Este artículo analiza los esfuerzos del estado de Oaxaca para delimitar sus fronteras de 1856 a 1912. Los funcionarios estatales esperaron demarcar un borde permanente a lo largo de la frontera como forma de delinear un fin pacífico a las constantes disputas limítrofes, algunas de las cuales, se creía, se habían originado en la época prehispánica. El marcar la frontera de Oaxaca representó efectivamente un proceso literal de formación del estado en México. Los funcionarios oaxaqueños intentaron negociar los límites jurisdiccionales estatales en cooperación con otras federaciones así como con sus propios ciudadanos en la medida que definieron los parámetros del estado y los límites de su autoridad durante esa era.

Portuguese abstract

Este artigo analisa os esforços do estado de Oaxaca em demarcar suas fronteiras entre os anos de 1856 e 1912. Funcionários públicos desejavam demarcar uma divisa permanente ao longo da fronteira como uma forma de promover um desfecho pacífico às constantes disputas fronteiriças, algumas das quais alegadamente datavam do período pré-colombiano. A atividade de demarcação dos limites de Oaxaca representou literalmente o processo de formação do Estado mexicano. Funcionários do estado de Oaxaca buscaram negociar os limites jurisdicionais do estado em cooperação com outros entes federados e com seus próprios cidadãos na medida em que localizavam os limites do Estado e o alcance de sua autoridade durante esta época.

Keywords

state formationOaxacaMexicoland disputesspatial historyformación estatalOaxacaMéxicodisputas de tierrahistoria espacialformação do EstadoOaxacaMéxicodisputas territoriaishistória espacial
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Latin American Studies , Volume 50 , Issue 2 , May 2018 , pp. 291 - 321
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Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

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References

1 Gobierno del Estado de Oaxaca, Memoria del Ejecutivo del Estado presentada al Honorable Congreso, 1844–1910 (Oaxaca: Imprenta del Estado, 1844–1910), p. 16 (hereafter Oaxaca, Memorias)Google Scholar.

2 Archivo General de la Nación (hereafter AGN), Gobernación: Autógrafos de leyes y decretos. 1888–1905. Vol. 2, exp. 47, Fs. 146–7; 1901–1910. Vol. 3, exp. 105, Fs. 167.

3 Sahlins, Peter, Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 2, 6Google Scholar; for Bourbon intendancies, see Fisher, Lillian Estelle, ‘The Intendant System in Spanish America’, The Hispanic American Historical Review, 8: 1 (Feb. 1928), pp. 3–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 Craib, Raymond B., Cartographic Mexico: A History of State Fixations and Fugitive Landscapes (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004), pp. 7–13Google Scholar, referred to this as an official ‘fixation’.

5 Ibid, p. 2.

6 Raj, Kapil, Relocating Modern Science: Circulation and the Construction of Knowledge in South Asia and Europe, 1650–1900 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), p. 19CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Classic works of this extensive literature include Foucault, Michel and Rabinow, Paul, The Foucault Reader (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984), pp. 239–56Google Scholar; Carter, Paul, The Road to Botany Bay: An Exploration of Landscape and History (New York: Knopf, 1988)Google Scholar; Lefebvre, Henri, The Production of Space (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991)Google Scholar; this scholarship complemented a tradition of cartographic history. See Harley, J. B. and Woodward, David, The History of Cartography, 3 vols. (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987)Google Scholar.

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10 Winichakul, Thongchai, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Craib, Cartographic Mexico; these studies built on Carter, Botany Bay.

11 Thongchai, Siam Mapped, p. 130; see for example, Barrow, Making History, Drawing Territory, p. 12.

12 Carrera, Magali, Traveling from New Spain to Mexico: Mapping Practices of Nineteenth-Century Mexico (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; for cartography in Mexico beyond the Porfiriato, see Mundy, Barbara E., The Mapping of New Spain: Indigenous Cartography and the Maps of the Relaciones Geográficas (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1996)Google Scholar; Ervin, Michael A., ‘Statistics, Maps, and Legibility: Negotiating Nationalism in Post-Revolutionary Mexico’, The Americas, 66: 2 (2009), pp. 155–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Vargas, Héctor Mendoza and Antochiw, Michel (eds.), México a través de los mapas (México, DF: UNAM, 2000)Google Scholar; Rebert, Paula, Línea, La Gran: Mapping the United States–Mexico Boundary, 1849–1857 (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

13 Craib, Cartographic Mexico, pp. 163–92, provides a nuanced and elegant discussion of such efforts in Mexico; as do Holden, Robert H., Mexico and the Survey of Public Lands: The Management of Modernization, 1876–1911 (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994)Google Scholar; and Kourí, Emilio, A Pueblo Divided: Business, Property, and Community in Papantla, Mexico (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004)Google Scholar.

14 A notable exception for the state of Oaxaca is García, Édgar Mendoza, Los bienes de comunidad y la defensa de las tierras en la Mixteca oaxaqueña: cohesión y autonomía del municipio de Santo Domingo Tepenene, 1856–1912 (México, DF: Senado de la República, 2004)Google Scholar; and Municipios, cofradías y tierras comunales: los pueblos chocholtecos de Oaxaca en el siglo XIX (Oaxaca: Universidad Autónoma Benito Juárez, 2011)Google Scholar; see also O'Gorman, Edmundo, Historia de las divisiones territoriales de México (México, DF: Porrua, 1966)Google Scholar.

15 Butler, Matthew and Ohmstede, Antonio Escobar (eds.), Mexico in Transition: New Perspectives on Mexican Agrarian History, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (México, DF: CIESAS, 2013), pp. 33–80Google Scholar.

16 Taylor, William B., Landlord and Peasant in Colonial Oaxaca (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972), pp. 75–89Google Scholar, analyses indigenous land disputes in the Spanish era.

17 Examples appear in ‘Plano Topográfico’, Oaxaca, Memorias, 1848, p. 16; Mariano Jiménez, ‘Límites Guerrero’, Oaxaca, Memorias, 1883, p. 5; Luis Mier y Terán, ‘Límites’, Oaxaca, Memorias, 1885, pp. 4–5.

18 Taylor, Landlord and Peasant in Colonial Oaxaca, pp. 84–5, finds this to be the case; as does Craib, Cartographic Mexico, pp. 65–9.

19 On state vision, see Scott, James C., Seeing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

20 Oaxaca, Memorias, 1908, p. 2; Iturribarria, Jorge Fernando, Historia de Oaxaca, 1821–1854 (Oaxaca: Ediciones ERB, 1935), pp. 43–58Google Scholar, also mentions this date.

21 Oaxaca's state archives are rife with such incidents. See the un-indexed Límites files under Gobierno: Archivo General del Poder Ejecutivo de Oaxaca (hereafter AGPEO), Gobierno, Límites, Legajos 91–4, 99–101.

22 See José M. Águila to Governor (hereafter ‘Gov.’) of Oaxaca, 30 April 1895, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/3.

23 Oaxaca, Memorias, 1885, pp. 4–5; Taylor, Landlord and Peasant in Colonial Oaxaca, pp. 67–110, showed the opposite: indigenous pueblos were both numerous and sedentary in colonial times.

24 Craib, Cartographic Mexico, p. 164; Oaxaca, Memorias, 1902, p. 6–7; and Oaxaca, Memorias, 1905, pp. 1–10.

25 Bornemann, Margarita Menegus, La Mixteca Baja entre la revolución y la reforma: cacicazgo, territorialidad y gobierno: siglos XVIII–XIX (Oaxaca: Universidad Autónoma Benito Juárez, 2009), pp. 99–104Google Scholar, shows that land disputes in Oaxaca from 1821 to 1856 often involved contradictory claims to cacicazgo ownership (cacicazgo – land ruled by a cacique).

26 Butler and Escobar Ohmstede (eds.), Mexico in Transition, p. 45.

27 Garner, Paul, Porfirio Díaz: entre el mito y la historia (México, DF: Ediciones Culturales Paidós, 2015), p. 285Google Scholar; see also Saka, Mark Saad, For God and Revolution: Priest, Peasant, and Agrarian Socialism in the Mexican Huasteca (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2013)Google Scholar; for an excellent case study, see Falcón, Romana, ‘Force and the Search for Consent: The Role of the Jefaturas Políticas of Coahuila in National State Formation’, in Joseph, Gilbert M. and Nugent, Daniel (eds.), Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994), pp. 107–34Google Scholar.

28 Romana Falcón, ‘Bajo la imperiosa necesidad de vivir: las profundas raíces agraristas en Chalco (Estado de México)’, in Butler and Escobar Ohmstede (eds.), Mexico in Transition, pp. 111–48.

29 Compare de López, Francie R. Chassen, From Liberal to Revolutionary Oaxaca: The View from the South: Mexico, 1867–1911 (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004)Google Scholar; with Garner, Paul, Regional Development in Oaxaca during the Porfiriato, 1876–1911 (Liverpool: University of Liverpool Press, 1995)Google Scholar for post-reforma economic development.

30 See Berry, Charles R., The Reform in Oaxaca, 1856–1876: A Microhistory of the Liberal Revolution (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1981)Google Scholar; and Esparza, Manuel, ‘Los proyectos de los liberales en Oaxaca (1856–1910)’, in Reina, Leticia (ed.), Historia de la cuestión agraria mexicana, Estado de Oaxaca, 2 vols. (México, DF: UABJO), vol. 1, pp. 271–329Google Scholar.

31 Smith, Benjamin T., The Roots of Conservatism in Mexico: Catholicism, Society, and Politics in the Mixteca Baja, 1750–1962 (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2012)Google Scholar; for this subject elsewhere, see Antonio Escobar Ohmstede and Frans Schryer, ‘Las sociedades agrarias en el norte de Hidalgo, 1856–99’, Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, 8: 1 (1992), pp. 1–21.

32 See for example J. Vicente Fagoaga to C. Juez de la Primera Instancia, 28 May 1907, Archivo Histórico Judicial de Oaxaca (hereafter AHJO), Civil, Legajo 2/5; José Lucas Cruz to C. Juez de la Primera Instancia, 10 Feb. 1910, AHJO, Civil, Legajo 107/5.

33 Each of these factors was involved in an on-going dispute in Zapotitlán Lagunas. ‘Problema por límites entre este lugar y Xochihuehuetlan del Edo. de Guerrero, Zapotitlán Lagunas, Silacayoapam, 1910’, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 100/9.

34 J. Carrera to Gov., 28 Feb. 1890, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 85/8.

35 Ramón Santaella to Gov., 29 May 1899, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 55/39.

36 Lorenzo Barroso to Gov., 27 May 1910, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 60/10.

37 In some areas, these customs grew out of the old cacicazgo system. See Menegus Bornemann, La Mixteca Baja, pp. 99–104.

38 Kourí, A Pueblo Divided, p. 135.

39 Martínez, Mucio P., Arbitraje sobre límites territoriales entre los estados: Guerrero y Oaxaca (Puebla: M. Corona y Cervantes, 1890), pp. 18–19Google Scholar.

40 Holden, Mexico and the Survey of Public Lands, p. 15.

41 Lorenzo Barroso to Emilio Pimentel, 20 June 1910, AGPEO, Gobierno, Legajo 60/10; Emilio Pimentel to Mucio P. Martínez, 20 June 1910, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 100/9.

42 Felisfón Estrada to Gov., 17 Dec. 1906, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 1/22.

43 Terrazgueros – sharecroppers.

44 Mariano Arrellano to Gov., Oaxaca, 27 Feb. 1896, AGPEO, Gobierno de los Distritos, Legajo 54/14.

45 ‘Títulos pertenecientes a Don Guillermo Acho (Problema por límites entre Oaxaca y Guerrero)’, AGPEO, Límites, Legajo 101/4.

46 Gov. Oaxaca to Secretary (‘Sec.’) Fomento, 3 Dec. 1886, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 1/14.

47 Oaxaca, Memorias, 1885, pp. 4–5; José Luis Zavila to Gov., 9 Feb. 1906, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 85/1.

48 Emilio Pimentel to Gov., Veracruz, 28 March 1905, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, 1901–1911, Legajo 60/3.

49 Plácido Pérez to Emilio Pimentel, 8 June 1908, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 85/18.

50 Maximino Martínez to Gov., 8 May 1907, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 60/5; ‘El pueblo de Guadalupe Ramírez vs. Sra. Ramírez sobre terrenos que aquellos tienen arrendados, 1896–97’, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 75/14; and Oaxaca, Memorias, 1902, p. 5.

51 Yannakakis, Yanna, ‘Witnesses, Spatial Practices, and a Land Dispute in Colonial Oaxaca’, The Americas, 65: 2 (2008), pp. 161–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar, describes this practice in colonial Oaxaca.

52 ‘Zapotitlán Lagunas se quejan de invasiones de los pueblos limítrofes de Puebla y Guerrero, 1905’, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 75/22.

53 Lorenzo Barroso to Gov., 21 Nov. 1910, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 60/10.

54 Manuel Chávez, ‘Informe’, 31 July 1889, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 60/2.

55 ‘Inventario relativo a cuestiones de terrenos que se hallan en la Sec. 6a para su arreglo cronológico, siendo de años muy anteriores al 1907’, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 60/4; ‘Problema por límites, Tlahuapa de Edo. de Guerrero. Juxtlahuaca, Petlacala’, 16 Jan. 1903, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 100/5.

56 Oaxaca, Memorias, 1902, p. 3; by 1894, law officers could pursue criminals across state lines. Emilio Pimentel to Gov., Veracruz, 28 March1905, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 60/3.

57 Joaquín Serrano to Gov., 30 Oct. 1909, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 54/22; Oaxaca, Memorias, 1908, p. 5, contains a similar plea; as does Oaxaca, Memorias, 1902, p. 5.

58 Ibid., p. 3.

59 ‘Inventario relativo a cuestiones de terrenos que se hallan en la Sec. 6a para su arreglo cronológico, siendo de años muy anteriores al 1907’, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 60/4.

60 For specific litigation, see the following AGPEO collections: Gobierno, Gobierno de los Distritos (see Legajos related to border districts); Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919: see Legajo 75/6, especially; the Límites collection, Gobierno, Legajos 91–4, 99–101; also AHJO, Ramo Civil (Silacayoapam, Huajuapam de León, Jamiltepec).

61 Oaxaca, Memorias, 1883, p. 1.

62 See von Müller, Johann Wilhelm, Viajes por los Estados Unidos, Canadá y México, reprint (México, DF: Tule, 1998)Google Scholar; Esteva, Cayetano, Nociones elementales de geografía histórica del estado de Oaxaca (México, DF: Hermanos San Germán, 1913)Google Scholar; Cubas, Antonio García, Atlas Metódico para la enseñanza de la geografía de la República Mexicana (México, DF: Sandoval y Vázquez, 1874)Google Scholar; Velasco, Alonso Luis, Geografía y estadística del estado de Oaxaca (México, DF: Oficina Tipográfica de la Secretaría de Fomento, 1891)Google Scholar.

63 Belmar, Francisco, Breve reseña histórica y geográfica del estado de Oaxaca (Oaxaca: Imprenta del Comercio, 1901), p. 24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

64 Magro, Francisco, Alegato de bien probado de la parte de Oaxaca en el juicio arbitral que sigue con Puebla sobre límites de ambos estados (Oaxaca: Talleres Cromotipográficos El Fénix, 1907), pp. v–viGoogle Scholar.

65 Jesús Acevedo to Gov. of Oaxaca, 9 Feb. 1889, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/2.

66 See the 1890 example in Actas relativas a la discusión de los comisionados para arreglar la cuestión de límites entre el Distrito de Tehuacán, Puebla y los de Coixtlahuaca y Teotitlán, Oaxaca (Puebla: Estado de Puebla, 1906), p. 15Google Scholar.

67 Nineteenth-century maps of Oaxaca circulated widely. See Mapoteca (Map Collection) Manuel Orozco y Berra, Mexico City (hereafter MOB): José Siliceo A., ‘Estado de Oaxaca’ (Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Obras Públicas, 1901); G. Niox, ‘Plan d'Oajaca’ (Expédition du Mexique, 1861–1867); Manuel Ortega Reyes, ‘Carta corográfica del estado de Oaxaca y de su capital y alrededores’ (1882), featuring the 1:100 000 scale mentioned above; Massot Delafond E., ‘Mapa del estado de Oaxaca’ (1857); Manuel Ortega Reyes, ‘Carta corográfica del estado de Oaxaca y de su Obispado’ (1857). Antonio García Cubas, Atlas mexicano (México, DF, 1884–7) featured a map of the state; J. Sotomayor, ‘Carta general del estado de Oaxaca’ (1912–16) was the most accurate map to that date, resulting largely from the survey work described in this article; the British Library holds the ‘Plano del Obispado e Yntendencia de Oaxaca en el Reyno de NE’ (1804); and the Perry Castañeda Library at the University of Texas–Austin the ‘Mapa del Departamento Oaxaqueño que Dedica al Señor Director Don Higinio Castañeda’ (1840).

68 García Cubas, Atlas mexicano, p. 83.

69 Good examples include ‘Plan de los terrenos de Santa Ana Rayón’, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 93/2; ‘Río Lalana’, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 94/11; ‘Zapotitlán Lagunas’, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 100/7.

70 Craib, Cartographic Mexico, pp. 211–16.

71 Oaxaca, Memorias, 1902, pp. 3–4.

72 Gov. to Manuel Muñoz Gómez, 5 Sept. 1891, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 1/21.

73 A good example is Martínez, Arbitraje, passim.

74 For Juárez's analogy, see Oaxaca, Memorias, 1848, p. 16.

75 Luis Mier y Terán to Francisco Arce, 7 Feb. 1888, in Oaxaca, Memorias, 1888, n.p.

76 Martinez, Arbitraje, p. 9; Jesús Acevedo to Gov. of Oaxaca, 3 Feb. 1889, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/2.

77 ‘Memoria del Ing. Abel Díaz Covarrubias, 1902’, MOB, Archivo Técnico, Caja 82/2.

78 ‘Áreas de los distritos del Estado de Oaxaca, 1902’, MOB, Archivo Técnico, Caja 188/15; CGE, Comisión Geográfico-Exploradora: 1:100 000, 1877–1914 (México, DF: Dirección General de Geografía y Meteorología, 1974), pp. 19–20Google Scholar; Craib, Cartographic Mexico, p. 176, notes the discovery of 2,841 ‘extra places’ in Veracruz.

79 Martínez, Arbitraje, p. 13.

80 Ing. Marte R. Gómez, ‘Memorias de trabajos en el Edo. de Chiapas, 1907’, MOB, Caja 110/15; ‘Enrique Suárez to H. Congreso Constituyente’, 3 Jan. 1917 in ibid.

81 A summary of such issues is found in AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/4; D. Alvarez to Gov., 11 April 1882, AGPEO, Gobierno de los Distritos, Jamiltepec (Justicia), Legajo 18/26; and ‘Relativo a los límites del estado de Oaxaca con los de Guerrero, Puebla, Veracruz y Chiapas’, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 92/3.

82 Martínez, Arbitraje, passim; detailed in AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 92/1.

83 Martínez, Arbitraje, p. 26; for an example, see Felisfón Estrada to Gov., 18 June 1906, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 1/22.

84 Manuel Santaella to Gov. of Oaxaca, 22 Nov. 1892, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/3; Cristóbal Palacios to Gov. of Oaxaca, 26 May 1896, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 100/1.

85 Martínez, Arbitraje, p. 29; on Guerrero, see Guardino, Peter F., Peasants, Politics, and the Formation of Mexico's National State: Guerrero, 1800–1857 (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), pp. 147–77Google Scholar.

86 Oaxaca, Memorias, 1905, p. 5.

87 Manuel D. Chávez, ‘Informe’, 31 July 1889, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/2.

88 Martínez, Arbitraje, pp. 22, 26; Luis Gómez Daza to Gov., 24 July 1901, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, 1901–1911, Legajo 60/1.

89 Oaxaca, Memorias, 1910, p. 5.

90 D. Álvarez to Gov., 11 April 1882, AGPEO, Gobierno de los Distritos (Justicia), Legajo 18/26; Francisco Arce to Gov., Oaxaca, 4 May 1888, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/1.

91 Oaxaca, Memorias, 1883, 1.

92 Luis Mier y Terán to Francisco Arce, 3 Jan. 1888, in Oaxaca, Memorias, 1888, n.p.

93 Francisco Arce to Gov., 24 April 1888, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/1.

94 Comisión de Límites, Oaxaca, ‘Informe’, May, 1888, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 91/3.

95 Francisco Arce to Gov., Oaxaca, 16 Jan. 1889, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/2.

96 Martínez, Arbitraje, p. 9.

97 Pablo Solís to Miguel González, 25 May 1889, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 92/1.

98 Albino Zertuche to Gov., 25 Dec. 1888, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/1.

99 Onésimo González to Gov., 11 April 1889, ibid.

100 Martínez, Arbitraje, pp. 48–9.

101 ‘El gobernador de Puebla habla con el gobernador de Oaxaca para tratar asuntos de límites, 1884’, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 91/8.

102 Martínez, Arbitraje, p. 30.

103 Ibid, p. 34.

104 These proceedings can be found in AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 91/7.

105 ‘Acuerdo entre este estado y el de Guerrero por cuestión de límites, Centro 1890’, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/3.

106 This dismissive practice continued throughout. See Lorenzo Barroso to Gov., Oaxaca, 22 Oct. 1908, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites. Legajo 99/7; for Oaxaca's arbitration with Puebla, see Actas relativas … límites entre el Distrito de Tehuacán, p. 39; see Sahlins, Boundaries, p. 268, for a similar interpretation in Europe.

107 Onésimo González to Gov., 23 May 1889, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/2.

108 Francisco Arce to Gov., 7 July 7 1891, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/5.

109 See Presidente Municipal Ayacaxtepec to Ramón Santaella, 22 Oct. 1913, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 55/44; Mucio Martínez to Emilio Pimentel, 11 July 1910, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 60/8; Lorenzo Barroso to Gov., 1 Dec. 1910, Gobierno, Conflictos por Limites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 60/10.

110 Miguel Castro to Gov., 12 Dec. 1891, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/3.

111 Cristóbal Palacios to Gov., 10 May 1896, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 100/1; J. Canseco to Gov., 1 Nov. 1896, AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 99/3.

112 Mucio Martínez to Emilio Pimentel, 11 July 1910; AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 60/8; see also Juan de Ríos Flores y León to Gov., 30 April 1908, AGPEO, Gobierno, Conflictos por Límites de Tierras, 1710–1919, Legajo 61/8.

113 Oaxaca underwent arbitration with Puebla in 1905. See AGPEO, Gobierno, Límites, Legajo 93/1; also Actas relativas … límites entre el Distrito de Tehuacán, passim.

114 Joseph, G. M. and Buchenau, Jürgen, Mexico's Once and Future Revolution: Social Upheaval and the Challenge of Rule since the Late Nineteenth Century (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; for classics that have influenced Mexicanists on state formation, see Corrigan, Philip Richard D. and Sayer, Derek, The Great Arch: English State Formation as Cultural Revolution (Oxford: Blackwell, 1985)Google Scholar; Williams, Raymond, Culture and Society, 1780–1950 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1958)Google Scholar; Gramsci, Antonio, Hoare, Quintin and Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey, Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (New York: International Publishers, 1972)Google Scholar.

115 The classic is Joseph, G. M. and Nugent, Daniel (eds.), Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994), pp. 102, 107–8, 141–2Google Scholar; this volume has inspired a large volume of scholarship on state formation in modern Mexico. See Purnell, Jennie, Popular Movements and State Formation in Revolutionary Mexico: The Agraristas and Cristeros of Michoacán (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999)Google Scholar; Ohmstede, Antonio Escobar, et al. , La arquitectura histórica del poder: naciones, nacionalismos y estados en América Latina: siglos XVIII, XIX y XX (México, DF: El Colegio de México, 2010)Google Scholar; and Smith, Benjamin T., Pistoleros and Popular Movements: The Politics of State Formation in Postrevolutionary Oaxaca (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar for excellent examples; on resistance, see Scott, James C., Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985)Google Scholar.

116 Raj, Relocating Modern Science, p. 19.

117 Mathews, Andrew S., Instituting Nature: Authority, Expertise, and Power in Mexican Forests (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011), p. 11CrossRefGoogle Scholar, bases his analysis on the twentieth-century state's unstable nature.