Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T18:29:51.280Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Care-leaving in South Africa: an international and social justice perspective

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2020

Sue Bond Open the ORCID record for Sue Bond [Opens in a new window]
Sue Bond*
Affiliation:
Social Work, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
*
CONTACT Sue Bond [email protected], Social Work, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park Kingsway Campus, Johannesburg, South Africa
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Internationally, the care-leaving debate began in the 1970s. The poor outcomes associated with care-leaving in the United Kingdom, United States of America and Australia prompted attention resulting in policy change in recent years, which continues to develop. The experience and outcomes for care leavers in South Africa reflects that of their contemporaries in other countries, however, contextual factors compound the problems that they face and there is little support available to them. This paper discusses some of the challenges facing care leavers and the development of the care-leaving debate, legislation and policy in the United Kingdom, United States and Australia. A comparison of the care-leaving arena in South Africa and the support services available to care leavers in the different countries will be presented. The paper concludes by arguing that the absence of services for care leavers is a neglect of the state's responsibility as corporate parent, and represents an issue of social justice.

Keywords

Care-leaving policycare leaverscorporate parentingsocial justiceSouth Africa
Type
Review Article
Information
Journal of International and Comparative Social Policy , Volume 34 , Issue 1 , February 2018 , pp. 76 - 90
Copyright
Copyright © 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abel, C. F., & Austin, S. F. (2014). Toward a theory of social justice for public administration: How public administration might be informed by Catholic social theory. Administrative Theory & Praxis, 36(4), 466–488.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ajdukovic, M., & Franz, B. S. (2005). Behavioural and emotional problems of children by type of out-of-home care in Croatia. International Journal of Social Welfare, 14, 163–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Akister, J., Owens, M., & Goodyer, I. M. (2010). Leaving care and mental health: Outcomes for children in out-of-home care during the transition to adulthood. Health Research Policy and Systems, 8(10), 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berridge, D. (2012). Educating young people in care: What have we learned? Children and Youth Services Review, 34(6), 1171–1175. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.01.032CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berzin, S. C., Rhodes, A. M., & Curtis, M. A. (2011). Housing experiences of former foster youth: How do they fare in comparison to other youth? Children and Youth Services Review, 33(11), 2119–2126. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.06.018Google Scholar
Betz, C. L. (2010). Emancipation of youth in foster care: The dilemma (editorial). Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 25(4), 241–243. doi: 10.1016/j.pedn.2009.11.005Google Scholar
Bond, S. J. (2010). Adult adjustment and independent functioning of individuals raised in a children's home. (Magister Artium in Social Work (Clinical)). Port Elizabeth: Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University.Google Scholar
Bond, S. J. (2015). Care leaving legislation and policy: How does South Africa compare against the international arena? Paper presented at the Social Work and Social Development Conference, East London, South Africa.Google Scholar
Bond, S. J. (2017). The development of possible selves and resilience in youth transitioning out of care. (D. Litt et Phil). Johannesburg: University of Johannesburg.Google Scholar
Bradbury, S. (2006). Corporate parenting: A discussion of the educational psychologist's role. Educational Psychology in Practice, 22(2), 141–158. doi: 10.1080/02667360600668287CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, S., & Wilderson, D. (2010). Homelessness prevention for former foster youth: Utilization of transitional housing programs. Children and Youth Services Review, 32(10), 1464–1472. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.07.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullock, R., Courtney, M. E., Parker, R., Sinclair, I., & Thoburn, J. (2009). Can the corporate state parent? Adoption & Fostering, 30(4), 6–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cameron, C. (2007). Education and self-reliance among care leavers. Adoption & Fostering, 31(1), 39–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cantwell, N., Davidson, L., Elsley, S., Milligan, I., & Quinn, N. (2010). Moving forward: Implementing the ‘guidelines for alternative care of children’. Scotland, United Kingdom: UK Centre for Excellence for Looked After Children in Scotland.Google Scholar
Carr, N. (2014). Invisible from view: Leaving and aftercare provision in the Republic of Ireland. Australian Social Work, 67(1), 88–101. doi: 10.1080/0312407x.2013.868014CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cashmore, J., & Mendes, P. (2008). Australia. In Stein, M. (Ed.), Young people's transitions from care to adulthood: International research and practice (pp. 23–25). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.Google Scholar
Cashmore, J., & Paxman, M. (2006). Predicting after-care outcomes: The importance of ‘felt’ security. Child & Family Social Work, 11(3), 232–241. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2206.2006.00430.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cluver, L., Meinck, F., & Omar, S. (2014). Primary school children: Widening worlds and increasing risk of sexual abuse. In Matthews, S., Jamieson, L., Lake, L., & Smith, M. (Eds.), South African child gauge 2014 (pp. 65–72). Cape Town: Children's Institute, University of Cape Town.Google Scholar
Collins, M. E. (2004). Enhancing services to youths leaving foster care: Analysis of recent legislation and its potential impact. Children and Youth Services Review, 26, 1051–1065.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Courtney, M. E. (2008). United States. In Stein, M. (Ed.), Young people's transitions from care to adulthood: International research and practice (pp. 225–238). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.Google Scholar
Courtney, M. E., & Dworsky, A. (2006). Early outcomes for young adults transitioning from out-of-home care in the USA. Child & Family Social Work, 11(3), 209–219. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2206.2006.00433.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coyle, D., & Pinkerton, J. (2012). Leaving care: The need to make connections. Child Care in Practice, 18(4), 297–308. doi: 10.1080/13575279.2012.719343CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cusick, G. R., Havlicek, J. R., & Courtney, M. E. (2012). Risk for arrest: The role of social bonds in protecting foster youth making the transition to adulthood. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 82(1), 19–31. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01136.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dawson, H. (2014). Youth politics: Waiting and envy in a South African informal settlement. Journal of Southern African Studies, 40(4), 861–882. doi: 10.1080/03057070.2014.932981CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Department of Social Development. (2010). Norms, standards and practice guidelines for the children's act. Pretoria: Department of Social Development.Google Scholar
Department of Social Development. (2013). Financial and fiscal commission: The provision and funding of child welfare services in South Africa. Pretoria: Department of Social Development.Google Scholar
Dickens, L. (2016). The contribution of resilience to the 12-month transitional outcomes of care-leavers in South Africa. (D. Litt et Phil). Johannesburg: University of Johannesburg.Google Scholar
Dickens, L. (2017). One year outcomes of youth exiting a residential care facility in South Africa. Child and Family Social Work. doi:10.1111/cfs.12411CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickens, L. F., van Breda, A. D., & Marx, P. (2015). Growth beyond the town: A longitudinal study on youth leaving care: 30-month status report. Cape Town: Girls & Boys Town South Africa and University of Johannesburg.Google Scholar
Dixon, J. (2008). Young people leaving care: Health, well-being and outcomes. Child and Family Social Work, 13, 207–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DRHCSIA. (2010). Transitioning from out of home care to independence: A national priority under the national framework for protecting Australia's children 2009–2020: Department of families, housing, community services and indigenous affairs together with the national framework implementation working group.Google Scholar
Driscoll, J. (2011). Making up lost ground: Challenges in supporting the educational attainment of looked after children beyond key stage 4. Adoption & Fostering, 35(2), 18–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dworsky, A., & Courtney, M. E. (2006). Homelessness and the transition from foster care to adulthood. Child Welfare, 88(4), 23–56.Google Scholar
Dworsky, A., & Courtney, M. E. (2010). The risk of teenage pregnancy among transitioning foster youth: Implications for extending state care beyond age 18. Children and Youth Services Review, 32(10), 1351–1356. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.06.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Financial and Fiscal Commission. (2013). Summary of public hearing on the provision and funding of child welfare services in South Africa (pp. 1–9). Vorna Valley: Financial and Fiscal Commission.Google Scholar
Gaskell, C. (2010). ‘If the social worker had called at least it would show they cared’: Young care leavers’ perspectives on the importance of care. Children & Society, 24, 136–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gharabagi, K., & Groskleg, R. (2010). A social pedagogy approach to residential care: Balancing education and placement in the development of an innovative child welfare residential program in Ontario, Canada. Child Welfare, 9, 247–256.Google Scholar
Hall, K. (2014a). Children's access to education. In Matthews, S., Jamieson, L., Lake, L., & Smith, C. (Eds.), South African child gauge 2014 (pp. 104–109). Cape Town: Children's Institute, University of Cape Town.Google Scholar
Hall, K. (2014b). Children's access to services. In Matthews, S., Jamieson, L., Lake, L., & Smith, C. (Eds.), South African child gauge 2014 (pp. 113–114). Cape Town: Children's Institute, University of Cape Town.Google Scholar
Hall, K. (2016). Children's access to housing. In Delany, A., Jehoma, S., & Lake, L. (Eds.), South African child gauge, 2016 (pp. 129–131). Cape Town: Children's Institute, University of Cape Town.Google Scholar
Hall, K., Mentjies, H., & Sambu, W. (2014). Demography of South Africa's children. In Matthews, S., Jamieson, L., Lake, L., & Smith, C. (Eds.), South African child gauge 2014 (pp. 90–93). Cape Town: Children's Institute, University of Cape Town.Google Scholar
Hart, D., & Williams, A. (2013). Putting corporate care into practice: A handbook for councillors (2nd ed.). London: National Children's Bureau.Google Scholar
Henig, A. (2009). Employment aid for youth aging out of foster care: Extending one-stop career centers to include a division for foster care youth. Family Court Review, 47(3), 570–585.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horn, L. (2013). Powers and Faden's theory of social justice applied to the problem of foetal alcohol syndrome in South Africa. Public Health Ethics, 6, 3–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horoi, I., & Ost, B. (2015). Disruptive peers and the estimation of teacher value added. Economics of Education Review, 49, 180–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jewkes, R., Dunkle, K., Koss, M. P., Levin, J. B., Nduna, M., Jama, N., & Sikweyiya, Y. (2006). Rape perpetration by young, rural South African men: Prevalence, patterns and risk factors. Social Science & Medicine, 63(11), 2949–2961. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.07.027CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lerner, R. (2015). Promoting positive human development and social justice: Integrating theory, research and application in contemporary developmental science. International Journal of Psychology, 50(3), 165–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loffell, J. (2007). Monitoring the situation of children in statutory care. In Dawes, A., Bray, R., & van der Merwe, A. (Eds.), Monitoring child well being: A South African approach (pp. 293–327). Cape Town: HRSC Press.Google Scholar
Lutya, T. M. (2009). Epi-criminological responses to human trafficking of young women and girls for involuntary prostitution in South Africa. Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention, 10, 59–78. doi: 10.1080/14043850903316196CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lutya, T. M. (2010). Lifestyles and routine activities of South African teenagers at risk of being trafficked for involuntary prostitution. Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 22(2), 91–110. doi: 10.2989/17280583.2010.528578CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malia, M. G., Dowty, R., & Danjczek, M. (2008). The historic role of residential group care. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 17(1), 43–51.Google Scholar
Mamelani. (2013). Transitional support: The experiences and challenges facing youth transitioning out of state care in the Western Cape. Cape Town: Mamelani Projects.Google Scholar
Matthews, S., & Benvenuti, P. (2014). Violence against children in South Africa: Developing a prevention agenda. In Matthews, S., Jamieson, L., Lake, L., & Smith, C. (Eds.), South African child gauge 2014 (pp. 26–34). Cape Town: Children's Institute, University of Cape Town.Google Scholar
Mendes, P., Johnson, G., & Moslehuddin, B. (2011). Effectively preparing young people to transition from out-of-home care: An examination of three recent Australian studies. Family Matters, 89, 61–70.Google Scholar
Mendes, P., & Moslehuddin, B. (2004). Graduating from the child welfare system: A comparison of the UK and Australian leaving care debates. International Journal of Social Welfare, 13(4), 332–339. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2397.2004.00329.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendes, P., & Moslehuddin, B. (2006). From dependence to interdependence: Towards better outcomes for young people leaving state care. Child Abuse Review, 15, 110–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendes, P., Pinkerton, J., & Munro, E. R. (2014). Young people transitioning from out-of-home care: An issue of social justice. Australian Social Work, 67(1), 1–4. doi: 10.1080/0312407x.2014.867471CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nannan, N., Hall, K., & Sambu, W. (2014). Child health and nutrition. In Matthews, S., Jamieson, L., Lake, L., & Smith, C. (Eds.), South African child gauge 2014 (pp. 99–103). Cape Town: Children's Institute, University of Cape Town.Google Scholar
Natalier, K., & Johnson, G. (2012). Housing pathways of young people who have left out-of-home state care. Housing, Theory and Society, 29(1), 75–91. doi: 10.1080/14036096.2011.592215CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Association of Social Workers. (2015). Social Justice. Retrieved from http://www.naswdc.org/pressroom/features/issue/peace.aspGoogle Scholar
Nduna, M., & Jewkes, R. (2010). Undisclosed paternal identity in narratives of distress among young people in Eastern Cape, South Africa. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(3), 303–310. doi: 10.1007/s10826-010-9393-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nduna, M., & Jewkes, R. (2012). Disempowerment and psychological distress in the lives of young people in Eastern Cape, South Africa. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21(6), 1018–1027. doi: 10.1007/s10826-011-9564-yCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nesmith, A., & Christophersen, K. (2014). Smoothing the transition to adulthood: Creating ongoing supportive relationships among foster youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 37, 1–8. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.11.028CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nestadt, D. F., Alicea, S., Petersen, I., John, S., Myeza, N. P., Nicholas, S. W., … Mellins, C. A. (2013). HIV+ and HIV- youth living in group homes in South Africa need more psychosocial support. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 8(3), 195–205. doi: 10.1080/17450128.2012.748949CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patel, L. (2015). Social welfare and social development (2nd ed.). Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Powers, M., & Faden, R. (2006). Social justice: The moral foundations of public health and public health policy. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Reuben, S. (2017). A qualitative evaluation of the St. George's home life campus programme for young people (Magister Artium Socialis Scientiae Clinical social work mini-dissertation). University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa.Google Scholar
Rogers, R. (2011). ‘I remember thinking, why isn't there someone to help me? Why isn't there someone who can help me make sense of what I'm going through?’: ‘Instant adulthood’ and the transition of young people out of state care. Journal of Sociology, 47(4), 411–426. doi: 10.1177/1440783311420793CrossRefGoogle Scholar
RSA. (1984). Child care act 74 of 83. Pretoria: Government Printer.Google Scholar
RSA. (1996). Constitution of the republic of South Africa, 108 of 1996. Pretoria: Government Printer.Google Scholar
RSA. (1997). White paper for social welfare. Pretoria: Government Printer.Google Scholar
RSA. (2005). Children's act 38 of 2005. Pretoria: Government Printer.Google Scholar
RSA. (2007). Children's amendment act 41 of 2007. Pretoria: Government Printer.Google Scholar
Stanley, N. (2007). Young people's and carers’ perspectives on the mental health needs of looked-after adolescents. Child and Family Social Work, 12, 258–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Statistics South Africa. (2016). Mid-year population estimates 2015. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa.Google Scholar
Statistics South Africa. (2017). Quarterly labour force study – QLFS Q1:2017. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa.Google Scholar
Stein, M. (2006). Young people aging out of care: The poverty of theory. Children and Youth Services Review, 28(4), 422–434. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2005.05.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stein, M. (2008). Resilience and young people leaving care. Child Care in Practice, 14(1), 35–44. doi: 10.1080/13575270701733682CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stein, M., & Wade, J. (2000). Helping care leavers: Problems and strategic responses. London: Department of Health.Google Scholar
Stott, T. (2013). Transitioning youth: Policies and outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review, 35(2), 218–227. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.10.019CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanur, C. (2012). Project Lungisela: Supporting young people leaving state care in South Africa. Child Care in Practice, 18(4), 325–340. doi: 10.1080/13575279.2012.713851CrossRefGoogle Scholar
UK. (1989). Children act. London: Her Majestys Stationery Office.Google Scholar
UK. (2000). Children (leaving care) act 2000. London: The Stationery Office Ltd.Google Scholar
United Nations. (1989). Convention on the rights of the child. Geneva: United Nations.Google Scholar
United Nations. (2010). Guidelines for the alternative care of children. Geneva: United Nations.Google Scholar
van Breda, A. D. (2015). Journey towards independent living: A grounded theory investigation of leaving the care of Girls & Boys Town, South Africa. Journal of Youth Studies, 18(3), 322–337. doi: 10.1080/13676261.2014.963534CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Breda, A. D. (2017). The first two years out of residential care in South Africa: A critical period for care-leaving services. Child Welfare, 95.Google Scholar
van Breda, A. D., & Dickens, L. (2015). Educational persistence and social exclusion in youth leaving residential care in South Africa. Nuances: Estudos Sobre Educação, 26(1), 22–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wade, J., & Munro, E. R. (2008). United Kingdom. In Stein, M. (Ed.), Young people's transitions from care to adulthood: International research and practice. (pp. 209–225). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.Google Scholar
Zetlin, A., Weinberg, L., & Shea, N. M. (2010). Caregivers, school liaisons, and agency advocates speak out about the educational needs of children and youths in foster care. Social Work, 55(3), 245–254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed