Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-29T11:37:46.497Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The world of the Sylheti seamen in the Age of Empire, from the late eighteenth century to 1947

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 October 2014

Ashfaque Hossain*
Affiliation:
Department of History, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

This article examines the maritime activities and emigration of Muslim Sylhetis, from what today is north-eastern Bangladesh. Among the Bengali people, Sylhetis were the pioneers in crossing the sea in the Age of Empire. In their voyages, they worked as crewmen on merchant ships, and then began to settle abroad, mainly in Britain and the USA. Some of those who settled in Britain started restaurants and lodging houses. One of the unexplored questions of South Asian historiography is: why was it the Sylhetis who became seamen and emigrants, even though they lived about 300 miles away from the sea? This article traces the socioeconomic, religious, and ecological environment of Sylhetis to understand their transnational mobility, notably within the increasingly interconnected realms of the British empire.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Bose, Sugata, A hundred horizons: the Indian Ocean in the age of global empire, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006, p. 79CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 Ahuja, Ravi, ‘Mobility and containment: the voyages of South Asian seamen, c. 1900–1960’, International Review of Social History, 51, 2006, pp. 111141CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Balachandran, G., Globalizing labour? Indian seafarers and world shipping, c.1870–1945, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2012Google Scholar.

4 Gardner, Katy, Global migrants, local lives: travel and transformation in rural Bangladesh, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995Google Scholar; Gardner, Katy, Age, narrative and migration: the life course and life histories of Bengali elders in London, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002Google Scholar.

5 Sarah Glynn, ‘The home and the world: Bengali political mobilization in London's East End and a comparison with the Jews’ past’, PhD thesis, University College London, 2003, p. 14; Glynn, Sarah, ‘Bengali Muslims: the new East End radicals?’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 25, 6, 2002, pp. 969988CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Eade, John, The politics of community: the Bangladeshi community in East London, Aldershot: Avebury, 1989, p. 2Google Scholar.

7 Adams, Caroline, Across seven seas and thirteen rivers: life stories of pioneer Sylheti settlers in Britain, London: Thap Books, 1987Google Scholar.

8 Caroline Adams’ ‘Letters, tapes and type transcriptions files’ are held under the classmark ‘P/ADM’ in Tower Hamlets Local History Library and Archives, Bancroft Road, London (henceforth THLA, P/ADM). Also in this file are Caroline Adams, ‘Navy men: lives of early Bangladeshi settlers in Britain’, undated typescript and audio cassettes, 1980s.

9 Interviewees included: Nurul Islam (seventy-seven when interviewed), Mushtaq Qureshi (seventy-five when interviewed), Mrs Badrun Nessa Uddin (eighty-one when interviewed), Dr Hasant Mohammad Husain (sixty when interviewed), and Shamim Azad (sixty when interviewed).

10 Choudhury, Yousuf, Sons of the empire: oral history from the Bangladeshi seamen who served on British ships during the 1939–1945 war, Birmingham: Sylheti Social History Group, 1995Google Scholar; Choudhury, Yousuf, The routes and tales of the Bangladeshi settlers, Birmingham: Sylheti Social History Group, 1993Google Scholar.

11 Heywood, Colin, Growing up in France: from the ancien regime to the Third Republic, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 3234Google Scholar.

12 Chowdhury, Brojendra Narayan, Smriti and Pratiti: an autobiography, Calcutta: Oriental Book Company, 1982Google Scholar.

13 Basu, Jyoti, Jata dur mone pore (As far as I remember), Calcutta: National Book Agency, 1998Google Scholar.

14 Strickland, C., Deltaic formation with special reference to the hydrographic processes of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, Calcutta: Longmans & Co., 1940Google Scholar.

15 Strickland, Deltaic formation; Chowdhury, , Smriti and Pratiti, pp. 113114Google Scholar.

16 Deloche, Jean, Transport and communications in India prior to steam locomotion, vol. 2, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993Google Scholar; Deloche, Jean, ‘Boats and ships in Bengal terracotta arts’, Bulletin de l’École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 78, 1991, pp. 2–3Google Scholar.

17 Gupta, Kamalakanta, Copper-plates of Sylhet, Sylhet: Lipika Enterprises, 1967, p. 7Google Scholar.

18 Nihar Ranjan Roy, Bangalir Itihas: Adiparba (History of the Bengali people), Calcutta: De's Publication, 1949, p. 152; Chakrabarty, Ranabir, ‘Avinna Devata, Vinna Mat: Prachin Srihatter Ekti Brahmapur (One God in different settings: a village of God in ancient Sylhet)’, Academy Patrika, 1, 1, 1991, pp. 30–40Google Scholar.

19 Battutah, Iban, Rehla of Iban Batttutah, tr. Mahdi Husain, Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1953, pp. 238–239Google Scholar.

20 Choudhury, Achyut Charan, Sreehatter itibritta (A history of Sylhet), vol. 5, Calcutta: Sree Uendra Lal Choudhury, 1910, pp. 24–25Google Scholar; Fazal, Abul, Ain-i-Akbari, vols. 2–3, tr. H. S. Jarrett, New Delhi: Low Price Publications, 1949, pp. 136137Google Scholar.

21 Barbosa, Duarte, The book of Duarte Barbosa, tr. M. L. dames, vol. 2, London: Hakluyt Society, 1918, p. 147Google Scholar.

22 Chaudhury, Achyut, Sreehatter itibritta, p. 28Google Scholar; Azraf, Dewan Mohammad, Sylhete Islam (Islam in Sylhet), Dhaka: Noawroj Books, 1995, p. 29Google Scholar.

23 Lindsay, Robert, ‘Anecdotes of an Indian life’, in Alexander Crawford Lindsay, ed., Lives of the Lindsays, vol. 4, Wigan: C. S. Simms, 1840, p. 26Google Scholar.

24 Ibid., p. 42.

25 Ibid., p. 26.

26 Ibid., p. 47.

27 Ibid., pp. 81–2.

28 Ibid., p. 45.

29 Choudhury, Achyut, Sreehatter itibritta, pp. 2425Google Scholar.

30 ‘Thackeray: ancestors of his who were fighters and administrators in India’, New York Times, 6 February 1897.

31 Lindsay, ‘Anecdotes’, pp. 41Google Scholar, 45.

32 Ibid., pp. 84–8.

33 Sylhet District Records, National Archives of Bangladesh, 292.57, October 1784.

34 Sylhet District Records, 292.57, 29 March 1792.

35 Bruce, H., Report on the police of the province of Assam and the districts of Sylhet, Cachar, Mymenshingh, Cossysh and Jynteah Hills, Calcutta: Government of Bengal, 1864, p. 65Google Scholar.

36 Hunter, W. W., A statistical account of Assam, vol. 2: Sylhet, London: Trubner & Company, 1879, p. 306Google Scholar.

37 Ibid., p. 308.

38 Ibid.; Allen, B. C., Assam district gazetteers: Sylhet, vol. 2, Calcutta: Government of Assam, 1905Google Scholar; Friel, R., Assam district gazetteers: Sylhet, supplement vol. 2, Shillong: Government of Assam, 1915Google Scholar.

39 Mukherjee, Hena, ‘Assam Bengal Railway’, in Sirajul Islam, ed., Banglapedia, Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 2012, pp. 442–443Google Scholar; Hilaly, Sarah, The railways in Assam 1885–1947, Varanasi: Pilgrims Publishers, 2007Google Scholar, pp. 134, 210–12.

40 Choudhury, Yousuf, Routes and tales, pp. 2931Google Scholar.

41 Shankar (real name Mani Shankar Mukherjee), Banga basundhara (Bengal and the world), Calcutta: De's Publication, 1999, pp. 294–5.

42 Ashfaque Hossain, ‘Historical globalization and its effects: a study of Sylhet and its people, 1874–1971’, PhD thesis, University of Nottingham, 2009, pp. 32–42.

43 British Library, London, India Office Records (henceforth IOR), MF 1/891, ‘Notes from the letter of T.P. Larkins, Magistrate, Fort William Fouzdari Court, Zillah Sylhet to the Secretary to the Government of Bengal’, 19 February 1856, p. 48.

44 Braker, George, Tea planter's life in Assam, Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co., 1884, pp. 231–232Google Scholar.

45 Shaw, T., and A. B. Smart, A brief history of surveys of the Sylhet District, Shillong: Government of Assam, 1917Google Scholar; Charles E. D. Black, A memoir on the Indian surveys, 1875–1890, London: Secretary of State for India in Council, 1891, pp. 77–78Google Scholar.

46 Hossain, , ‘Historical globalization’, p. 34Google Scholar.

47 Allen, , Sylhet, p. 7Google Scholar.

48 Hossain, , ‘Historical globalization’, pp. 2021Google Scholar.

49 Hunter, , Sylhet, pp. 289290Google Scholar.

50 Interview with Mushtaq Qureshi, West London, 8 December 2006.

51 Choudhury, Yousuf, Routes and tales, p. 59Google Scholar.

52 Beverly, H., Report on the census of Bengal, 1872, Calcutta: Government of Bengal, 1872Google Scholar, pp. cxliv–cxiv; Choudhury, Achyut, Sreehatter itibritta, p. 51Google Scholar.

53 Islam, Nurul, Probashir kotha (Tales of immigrants), Sylhet: Probashi Publication, 1989, p. 523Google Scholar.

54 Allen, , Sylhet, p. 167Google Scholar.

55 Hossain, Ashafque, ‘The making and unmaking of Assam–Bengal borders and the Sylhet Referendum’, Modern Asian Studies, 47, 1, 2013, pp. 250–287Google Scholar.

56 Choudhury, Yousuf, Sons of the empire, p. 13Google Scholar.

57 THLA, P/ADM/2/1, Audio cassette tape interview with Nawab Ali by Caroline Adams in the 1980s.

58 Interview with Mushtaq Qureshi.

59 Interviews with Nurul Islam, 14 October 2006 and 2 January 2007, Essex, UK; Interview with Mushtaq Qureshi; THLA, P/ADM/2/3/4/5/6, Audio cassette tapes of interviews with Nawab Ali, Taslim Ali, Afruz Miah, Zohor Ali, Hazi Kona Miah, and Attaur Ullah by Caroline Adams in the 1980s.

60 Eaton, Richard M., The rise of Islam and the Bengal frontier, 1204–1760, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994, pp. 212213Google Scholar.

61 Ali, Syed Murtuza, Hazrat Shah Jalal o Sylhetter itihas (Shah Jalal and the history of Sylhet), Dhaka: University Press Limited, 1965, pp. 9–11Google Scholar.

62 Ibid.

63 Ahmed, Rafiuddin, The Bengal Muslims 1871–1906: a quest for identity, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1988Google Scholar; Ahmed, Rafiuddin, Understanding Bengali Muslims: interpretive essays, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001Google Scholar.

64 THLA, P/ADM/2/11–13, Audio cassette tape interview with Syed Abdul Majid Qureshi by Caroline Adams in the 1980s.

65 I have heard these songs from my boyhood in Sylhet, and also in Brick Lane during my visits between 2007 and 2009.

66 Interview with Shamim Azad, Gants Hill, Essex, 6 April 2008.

67 Caroline Adams’ interview with Syed Abdul Majid Qureshi.

68 Lindsay, , ‘Anecdotes’, pp. 4149Google Scholar.

69 ‘Proceedings of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania’, 3 November 1785, in Colonial records of Pennsylvania, vol. 14, Harrisburg: Theo. Fenn & Co., 1853, p. 569.

70 Pearson, Michael, The Indian Ocean, London: Routledge, 2003, pp. 192–193CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

71 Captain W. H. Wood, The blight of insubordination: the Lascar Question and rights and wrongs of the British shipmaster, including the Mercantile Marine Committee Report, London, Spottiswode & Co., 1903, pp. 49–50. Norma Myers, ‘The black poor of London: initiatives of Eastern seamen in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries’, in Diane Frost, ed., Ethnic labour and British imperial trade: a history of ethnic seafarers, London: Frank Cass & Co., 1995, pp. 9–11.

72 Ewald, Janet J., ‘Crossers of the sea: slaves, freedmen, and other migrants in the northwestern Indian Ocean, c. 1750–1914’, American Historical Review, 105, 1, 2000, pp. 7677CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

73 Dixon, Conrad, ‘Lascars: the forgotten seamen’, in R. Ommer and G. Panting, eds., Working men who got wet: proceedings of the Fourth Conference of the Atlantic Shipping Project, July 24–July 26 1980, Saint John: Newfoundland Memorial University Press, 1980, p. 281Google Scholar.

74 Ibid., p. 243.

75 Census of India, Bengal, 1881, vol. 1, Calcutta: Government of Bengal, p. 78.

76 Interview with Mushtaq Qureshi; Caroline Adams’ interview with Syed Abdul Majid Qureshi.

77 THLA, P/ADM, Audio cassette tape interviews with Syed Abdul Majid Qureshi and Attah Ullah by Caroline Adams in the 1980s.

78 Interview with Mushtaq Qureshi.

79 Information and Broadcasting Department, India, Our merchant seamen: modern India series, vol. 3, New Delhi: Government of India, 1947, p. 28; Yousuf Choudhury, Sons of the empire, pp. 107–8.

80 Milton, G. E., Peeps at great steamship lines: the Peninsular and Oriental, London: Adams and Charles Black, 1913, p. 58Google Scholar.

81 C. B. A. Behrens, History of the Second World War: merchant shipping and the demands of war, London: HMSO, 1956Google Scholar; Islam, , Probashir kotha, pp. 621622Google Scholar.

82 Howard Bloch, ‘From over the seas: foreign sailors ashore in the Royal Docks’, Local Studies, Stratford Library, London, n.d., p. 1.

83 Interview with Mushtaq Qureshi.

84 Commonwealth War Graves Commission, ‘Records of the Tower Hill Memorial’, http://www.cwgc.org/find-a-cemetery/ (consulted 3 July 2014).

85 Caroline Adams’ interview with Nawab Ali; Yousuf Choudhury, Routes and tales, p. 58.

86 THLA, P/ADAM/1/1, Caroline Adams, ‘Navy men: lives of early Bangladeshi settlers in Britain’, undated typescript.

87 Caroline Adams’ interview with Nawab Ali; Yousuf Choudhury, Sons of the empire, pp. 56–67.

88 Interviews with Nurul Islam; Interview with Mushtaq Qureshi.

89 Campbell, A. B., Salute the red duster, London: Christopher Johnson, 1952Google Scholar, Forward.

90 Watkins-Thomas, M., ‘Our Asian crews’, in About ourselves, London: P&O, 1955Google Scholar; Interview with Mushtaq Qureshi; Interviews with Nurul Islam; Yousuf Choudhury, Sons of the empire, pp. 56–7.

91 Tower Hill Memorial, Trinity Square, London (seen on 16 March 2007).

92 Interviews with Nurul Islam.

93 Family papers of Somir Ullah, obtained from Mr Salikur Rahman, son of Somir Ullah, London, 15 March 2007, letter from David Jones, Medal Section, Marine Safety Agency (MSA), Cardiff, to Mr Salikur Rahman, 5 September 1997.

94 Information and Broadcasting Department, Our merchant seamen, p. 8.

95 The National Archives, UK, PRO CO 273/639/9, Colonial Office, Abdul Majid's petition to the Board of Trade, 2 September 1938.

96 IOR, L/PJ/12/630, ‘All India Seamen's Federation in United Kingdom’, 4 December 1939, pp. 13–16.

97 Bloch, ‘From over the seas’; Bloch, Howard, Canning Town voices, London: Tempus, 1997Google Scholar.

98 Choudhury, Yousuf, Sons of the empire, p. 25Google Scholar.

99 Chowdhury, , Smriti and Pratiti, p. 207Google Scholar.

100 Caroline Adams’ interview with Syed Abdul Majid Qureshi.

101 Interviews with Nurul Islam.

102 IOR, L/E/9/962, Letter of the British India Steam Navigation Company, 30 July 1930.

103 Islam, Nurul, Sojourners to settlers: the tales of immigrants, Dhaka: Bangla Academy, 2013, p. 199Google Scholar.

104 Caroline Adams’ interview with Syed Abdul Majid Qureshi; Islam, Sojourners to settlers, p. 197.

105 Adams, , Across the seven seas, p. 66Google Scholar.

106 Hossain, , ‘Historical globalization’, p. 142Google Scholar.

107 Caroline Adams’ interview with Syed Abdul Majid Qureshi.

108 Smith, Marian, ‘Village notes from Bengal’, American Anthropologist, 48, 4, 1946, pp. 581–582CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

109 Hossain, , ‘Historical globalization’, p. 149Google Scholar.

110 Islam, , Probashir kotha, p. 52Google Scholar.

111 Ibid., p. 547.

112 IOR, PJ/12/630, Extract from New Scotland Yard Report No. 248, 7 July 1943, p. 138.

113 Ibid.

114 IOR, L/PJ/12/448, ‘V. K. Menon and India League’, 1 May 1939.

115 IOR, L/PJ/12/630, p. 140.

116 IOR, L/PJ/12/630, Letter from Ayub Ali on behalf of the Indian Seamen Welfare League to Clan Line, 22 June 1943, p. 143.

117 IOR, L/PJ/12/645, p. 64.

118 Hossain, , ‘Historical globalization’, p. 149Google Scholar.

119 Islam, , Probashir kotha, pp. 603606Google Scholar.

120 Choudhury, Yousuf, Routes and tales, p. 54Google Scholar; Islam, , Probashir kotha, p. 604Google Scholar.

121 IOR, L/PJ/12/452, ‘Public and Judicial Department, Subject: India League and connected organisations’, 30 March 1939, p. 45.

122 Ibid., p. 38.

123 IOR, L/E/9/970, Minutes of Economic and Overseas Department, 8 October 1940.

124 National Archives of Bangladesh, AISF, All India Seamen Federation's leaflet, December 1941.

125 IOR, PJ/12/773; IOR, PJ/12/976, ‘Indian Seamen's Union & Aftab Ali’, 17 April 1994.

126 IOR, L/PJ/12/630, ‘All India Seamen's Federation in United Kingdom’, 4 December 1939, pp. 13–16.

127 IOR, L/PJ/12/448–56, ‘V. K. Menon and India League’, 1 May 1939; Suhash Chakravarty, V. K. Menon and the India League, 2 vols., New Delhi: Har-Anand, 1997.

128 IOR, L/PJ/12/630, ‘All India Seamen's Federation in United Kingdom’, 4 December 1939; IOR, L/PJ/12/455; IOR, L/PJ/12/646, ‘Indian Seamen's Union & Aftab Ali’, 17 April 1994.

129 IOR, L/PJ/12/630. Also see THLA, P/ADM/1/1.

130 Caroline Adams’ interview with Syed Abdul Majid Qureshi.

131 Ibid.

132 Interview with Mushtaq Qureshi.