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Malariology and decolonization: Eastern European experts from the League of Nations to the World Health Organization

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 March 2022

Bogdan C. Iacob Open the ORCID record for Bogdan C. Iacob [Opens in a new window]
Bogdan C. Iacob*
Affiliation:
Institute of History, Romanian Academy, Bucharest 011851, Romania
*
E-mail: [email protected]
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Abstract

The article de-centres the global history of disease by examining the agency of Eastern European expertise at international organizations and during decolonization. It challenges accounts of anti-malaria policies at the League of Nations Health Organization and at the World Health Organization written from a Western, particularly North American perspective, or on the basis of local reactions to Western interventions. The contribution proposes an analysis of circulations and ideas across multiple cultural, social and political spaces: post-imperial European states, (post)colonial territories and bureaucracies of international organizations. From the 1920s to the 1960s, Eastern European experts played a crucial role in the transformation of malaria from an imperial disease that tested governance over ‘tropical’ peoples into an issue of global health and nation-state building. However, regional representatives reproduced civilizational hierarchies intrinsic to North–South biomedical relations. The global entanglements of Eastern European malariology show that liberation from disease was less about communism or liberalism, and more about national renewal, statehood and world hierarchies.

Keywords

MalariaEastern EuropeDecolonizationCold WarEradicationGlobal Health
Type
Article
Information
Journal of Global History , Volume 17 , Issue 2: Special Issue: Towards a Global History of International Organizations and Decolonization , July 2022 , pp. 233 - 253
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© The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press

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Footnotes

†

The author acknowledges the support of the project ‘Socialism Goes Global: Cold War Connections Between the “Second” and “Third Worlds”’ (funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council-United Kingdom, grant no. AH/M001830/1), the Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies, the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant no. 754513, and the Aarhus University Research Foundation. I also acknowledge the grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research and Innovation, CNCS-UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P4-ID-PCE-2020-1337.

References

1 Marcos Cueto, Theodore Brown and Elizabeth Fee, The World Health Organization. A History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 86; Randall Packard, The Making of a Tropical Disease. A Short History of Malaria (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 156.

2 Official Records WHO no. 152, 19th WHA, Geneva, 3–20 May 1966, 130.

3 On Eastern Europe’s role in international organizations see the special issues ‘Agents of Internationalism’, Contemporary European History 25, no. 2 (2016); ‘State Socialist Experts in Transnational Perspective. East European Circulation of Knowledge during the Cold War’, East Central Europe 45, nos. 2–3 (2018); ‘Making Modern Social Science: The Global Imagination in East Central and Southeastern Europe after Versailles’, Contemporary European History 28, no. 2 (2019); or, Sandrine Kott, ‘Cold War Internationalism’, in Internationalisms: A Twentieth Century History, eds. G. Sluga and P. Clavin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 340–62.

4 On international organisations as institutional platforms and expert networks that generate comprehensive border-crossing capacities with their own historicity see Madeleine Herren, ‘Introduction: Towards a Global History of International Organization’, in Ibid. ed. in collaboration with Maya Okuda, Networking the International System Global Histories of International Organizations (Cham: Springer, 2014), 1–14.

5 Randall Packard, ‘Malaria Dreams: Postwar Visions of Health and Development in the Third World’, Medical Anthropology 17, no. 3 (1997): 279–96; David Engerman, ‘The Romance of Economic Development and New Histories of the Cold War’, Diplomatic History 28, no. 1 (2004): 23–54.

6 On de-centring histories of international organizations, decolonization or the Cold War: Richard Drayton and David Motadel, ‘The Futures of Global History’, Journal of Global History, 13, no. 1 (2018): 10; Martin Thomas and Andrew Thompson, ‘Rethinking Decolonization: A New Research Agenda for the Twenty-First Century’, in The Oxford Handbook of the Ends of Empire, eds. Ibid. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 1–26; Richard Immerman and Petra Goedde, ‘Introduction’, in The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War, eds. Ibid. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 7.

7 On Eastern Europe, decolonization and globalization: James Mark, Artemy Kalinovsky and Steffi Marung eds., Alternative Globalizations: Eastern Europe and the Postcolonial World (Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2020); James Mark and Quinn Slobodian, ‘Eastern Europe’, in Oxford Handbook of the Ends of Empire, 351–72.

8 The article aligns with studies of anti-malaria approaches that move away from the primacy of the West: Rohan Deb Roy, Malarial Subjects: Empire, Medicine and Nonhumans in British India, 1820–1909 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017); Kalinga Tudor Silva, Decolonization, Development and Disease: A Social History of Malaria in Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2014); Joann McGregor and Terence Ranger, ‘Displacement and Disease: Epidemics and Ideas about Malaria in Matabeleland, Zimbabwe, 1945–1996’, Past and Present 167, no. 2 (2000): 203–237.

9 Iris Borowy, Coming to Terms with World Health. The League of Nations Health Organisation 1921–1946 (Berlin: Peter Lang, 2009); Susan Gross Solomon, Lion Murard and Patrick Zylberman, eds., Shifting Boundaries of Public Health: Europe in the Twentieth Century (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2008); Iris Borowy and Anne Hardy, eds., Of Medicine and Men. Biographies and Ideas in European Social Medicine between the World Wars (Berlin: Peter Lang, 2008); Paul Weindling, International Health Organisations and Movements, 1918–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

10 Jessica Pearson, The Colonial Politics of Global Health: France and the United Nations in Postwar Africa (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2018); Sunil Amrith, Decolonizing International Health. India and Southeast Asia, 1930–65 (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006); Warwick Anderson, Colonial Pathologies: American Tropical Medicine, Race and Hygiene in the Philippines (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006); David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-century India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).

11 Dora Vargha, Polio Across the Iron Curtain: Hungary’s Cold War with an Epidemic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018); Anne-Emanuelle Birn and Nikolai Krementsov, ‘Socialising’ Primary Care? The Soviet Union, WHO and the 1978 Alma-Ata Conference’, BMJ Glob Health 3, Suppl. 3 (2018): 1–15; Young-Sun Hong, Cold War Germany, the Third World, and the Global Humanitarian Regime (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015); Erez Manela, ‘A Pox on Your Narrative: Writing Disease Control into Cold War History’, Diplomatic History 34, no. 2 (2010): 299–323.

12 On East-South political, economic, cultural or medical connections throughout the twentieth century see James Mark and Paul Betts, Socialism Goes Global: The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe in the Age of Decolonization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022). For examples of Eastern European participations to global processes see Jan Zofka, ‘Chairman Cotton: Socialist Bulgaria’s Cotton Trade with African countries during the early Cold War (1946–70)’, Journal of Global History (2021), 1–19, doi: 10.1017/S1740022821000280; Ana Antic, ‘Decolonizing Madness? Transcultural Psychiatry, International Order and the Birth of a “Global Psyche” in the Aftermath of the Second World War’, Journal of Global History 17, no. 1 (2021): 20–41, doi: 10.1017/S1740022821000115; Viviana Iacob, ‘The University of the Theatre of Nations’, Journal of Global Theatre History, 4, no. 2 (2020): 68–80.

13 On multi-local perspectives in the study of international organizations: Simon Jackson and Alanna O’Malley, ‘Rocking on its Hinges? The League of Nations, the United Nations and the New History of Internationalism in the Twentieth Century’, in The Institution of International Order: From the League of Nations to the United Nations, eds. Ibid. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2018), 2–4.

14 Odd Westad, ‘The Cold War and the International History of the Twentieth Century’, in The Cambridge History of the Cold War. Volume I Origins, eds. M. Leffler and O. Westad (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 13.

15 Moritz Bonn, ‘The Age of Counter-Colonisation’, International Affairs 13, no. 6 (1934): 845–47; Stuart Ward, ‘The European Provenance of Decolonization’, Past and Present 230, no. 1 (2016): 227–60.

16 Marta Balińska, For the Good of Humanity. Ludwik Rajchman, Medical Statesman (Budapest: Central European University Press, 1998).

17 Borowy, Coming, 454.

18 Patrick Zylbermann, ‘Mosquitos and the Komitadjis: Malaria and Borders in Macedonia (1919–1938)’, in Facing Illness in Troubled Times: Health in Europe in the Interwar Years 1918–1933, eds. I. Borowy and W. Gruner (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2005), 318.

19 Leonard Bruce-Chwatt, ‘Malaria Research and Eradication in USSR’, Bulletin World Health Organization 21, no. 6 (1959): 739.

20 Derek Aldcroft, Europe’s Third World: The European Periphery in the Interwar Years (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), 66.

21 Paul Weindling, ‘Public Health and Political Stabilisation: The Rockefeller Foundation in Central and Eastern Europe between the Two World Wars’, Minerva 31, no. 3 (1993): 243–67.

22 Susan Gross Solomon and Nikolai Krementsov, ‘Giving and Taking Across Borders: The Rockefeller Foundation and Russia, 1919–1928’, Minerva 39 (2001): 265–98.

23 Patricia Clavin, ‘Time, Manner, Place: Writing Modern European History in Global, Transnational and International Contexts’, European History Quarterly 40, no. 4 (2010): 631.

24 Borowy, Coming, 16.

25 Patrick Zylberman, ‘A Transatlantic Dispute: The Etiology of Malaria and the Redesign of the Mediterranean Landscape’, in Shifting, eds. Solomon et al., 269–97; Hughes Evans, ‘European Malaria Policy in the 1920s and 1930s: The Epidemiology of Minutiae’, Isis, 80, no. 1 (1989): 40–59.

26 Anderson, Colonial, 244–5.

27 Željko Dugac, ‘Andrija Štampar (1888–1958): Resolute Fighter for Health and Social Justice’, in Of Medicine, eds. Borowy and Hardy, 73–101; Sara Silverstein, ‘The Periphery is the Centre: Some Macedonian Origins of Social Medicine and Internationalism’, Contemporary European History 28, no. 2 (2018): 220–33.

28 Radu Iftimovici, Frații Mihai şi Alexandru Ciucă (Brothers Mihai and Alexandru Ciucă) (Iaşi: Junimea, 1975) 180–1; Gabriel Gachelin and Annick Opinel, ‘Malaria Epidemics in Europe after the First World War: The Early Stages of an International Approach to the Control of the Disease’, História, Ciências, Saúde, 18, no. 2 (2011): 437 and 440.

29 Raul Neghină et al., ‘Malaria and the Campaigns toward its Eradication in Romania, 1923–1963’, Vector-borne and Zoonotic Diseases 11, no. 2 (2011), 105.

30 Richard Johnson, Malaria and Malaria Control in the USSR, 1917–1941 (PhD diss., Georgetown University, 1988), 92–3.

31 Quoted in Borowy, Coming, 245.

32 Idem.

33 Marian Vasile, ‘L’expérience roumaine de la lutte contre le paludisme’, Noesis 24 (2000), 220–1.

34 Johnson, Malaria, 204–5.

35 John Farley, To Cast Out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913–1951) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 258–9.

36 Neghina et al., ‘Malaria’, 104 and Vasile, ‘L’expérience’, 221; Leașu Florin Gabriel, Campanii sanitare în România în prima jumătate a secolului XX (Sanitary Campaigns in Romania during the First Half of the Twentieth Century) (PhD diss., Transylvania University, Braşov, 2014), 160–5.

37 Zylberman, ‘Mosquitoes’, 308.

38 Johnson, Malaria, 127.

39 Matthias Braun, ‘From Landscapes to Labscapes: Malaria Research and Anti-Malaria Policy in Soviet Azerbaijan, 1920–41’, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 61, no. 4 (2013): 525; Susan Jones and Anna Amramina, ‘Entangled Histories of Plague Ecology in Russia and the USSR’, History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 40, no. 3 (2018): 5.

40 Dietmar Müller, ‘Colonization Projects and Agrarian Reforms in East-Central and Southeastern Europe, 1913–1950’, in Governing the Rural in Interwar Europe, ed. L. van de Grift and A. Forclaz (New York: Routledge, 2017), 45–67; Katharina Kreuder-Sonnen, ‘Epidemiological State-building in Interwar Poland: Discourses and Paper Technologies’, Science in Context 32, no. 1 (2019): 43–65; Victoria Shmidt, ‘The Politics of Surveillance in the Interwar Czechoslovak Periphery: The Role of Campaigns against Infectious Diseases’, Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung 68, no. 1 (2019): 29–56.

41 Alexei Lysenko and Nikholai Semashko, ‘Geography of Malaria’, Medical Geography 1966 (Moscow, 1968), 28, https://endmalaria.org/sites/default/files/lysenko.pdf.

42 Nandini Bhattacharya, Contagion and Enclaves Tropical Medicine in Colonial India (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012), 161.

43 For Ciucă’s views Iftimovici, Fraţii, 10.

44 Mark Field, ‘Soviet Medicine’, in Companion of Medicine in the Twentieth Century, eds. R. Cooter and J. Pickstone, (London: Routledge, 2003), 54.

45 Bhattacharya, Contagion, 149–50; Michitake Aso, ‘Patriotic Hygiene: Tracing New Places of Knowledge Production about Malaria in Vietnam, 1919–75’, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 44, no. 3 (2013): 429; James Webb, The Long Struggle Against Malaria in Tropical Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 86–7.

46 Amrith, Decolonizing, 42.

47 Ana Antić, ‘Imagining Africa in Eastern Europe: Transcultural Psychiatry and Psychoanalysis in Cold War Yugoslavia’, Contemporary European History 28, no. 2 (2018): 251.

48 Webb, The Long, 28–9; Bhattacharya, Contagion, 154–8; Anderson, Colonial, 87–8.

49 Iftimovici, Frații, 193–4.

50 Ibid., 189.

51 David Arnold, ‘“An Ancient Race Outworn”: Malaria and Race in Colonial India, 1860–1930’, in Race, Science and Medicine, 1700–1960, eds. W. Ernst and B. Harris (London: Routledge, 1999), 138–41.

52 Susan Gross Solomon, ‘Infertile Soil: Heinz Zeiss and the Import of Medical Geography to Russia, 1922–1930’, in Doing Medicine Together: Germany and Russia Between the Wars, ed. Ibid. (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 2006), 240–90; Susan Gross Solomon, ‘The Soviet-German Syphilis Expedition to Buriat Mongolia, 1928: Scientific Research on National Minorities’, Slavic Review 52, no. 2 (1993): 204–32.

53 Johnson, Malaria, 145–6.

54 Ibid., 182–5 and 188–94.

55 Braun, ‘From Landscapes’, 526.

56 Paula Michaels, Curative Powers: Medicine and Empire in Stalin’s Central Asia (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003), 4–10.

57 Iris Borowy, ‘Thinking Big - League of Nations’ Efforts towards a Reformed National Health System in China’, in ed. Ibid., Uneasy Encounters: The Politics of Medicine and Health in China 1900–1937 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2009), 215 and 218.

58 The Central Field Health Station was created in 1931 by LNHO and the Chinese National Government to coordinate state medical activities. It emulated Eastern European institutes of hygiene. Until 1938 it was managed by Berislav Borčić, Andrija Štampar’s closest collaborator and the director of the National School of Hygiene in Zagreb. Yubin Shen, Malaria and Global Networks of Tropical Medicine in Modern China, 1919–1950 (Ph.D. diss., Georgetown University, 2017), 95–8 and Borowy, ‘Thinking’, 210–2. On interwar Chinese epidemiology see Mary Brazelton, Mass Vaccination: Citizens’ Bodies and State Power in Modern China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2019), 15–32.

59 Cueto et al., The World, 28.

60 Michael Worboys ‘Colonial Medicine’, in Companion, eds. Cooter and Pickstone, 73.

61 W. J. F. Craig, ‘Report on the League of Nations’ Course on Malaria Held in Singapore’, BMJ Military Health 68, no. 3 (1937): 172.

62 Ibid., 174.

63 Aso, ‘Patriotic’, 423–43; Warwick Anderson and Hans Pols, ‘Scientific Patriotism: Medical Science and National Self-Fashioning in Southeast Asia’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 54, no. 1 (2012): 93–113.

64 For a critique by a colonial medical official of Mihai Ciucă’s alledged failure to understand ‘tropical’ conditions see Edmond Sergent, ‘Work of the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations since 1930’, 16 September 1938, LN/CH/Malaria/268, 9–10.

65 Randall Packard, A History of Global Health: Interventions into the Lives of Other Peoples (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016), 105–8.

66 David Kinkela, DDT and the American Century: Global Health, Environmental Politics, and the Pesticide that Changed the World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011), 6–7 and 91.

67 Elena Izmaïlova, ‘The System of Epidemic Control in the USSR: Short Essay on its History’, in Les Sciences hors d’Occident au XXe siècle. Volume 4, Médecines et santé, ed. Anne Moulin (Paris: Orstom 2016), 115.

68 Dora Vargha, ‘The Socialist World in Global Polio Eradication’, Revue d’études comparatives Est-Ouest 1, no. 1 (2018): 88.

69 Packard, A History, 89.

70 Cueto et al., The World, 38–39.

71 Heidi Tworek, ‘Communicable Disease: Information, Health, and Globalization in the Interwar Period’, American Historical Review 124, no. 3 (2019): 814.

72 Nancy Stepan, Eradication: Ridding the World of Diseases Forever? (London: Reaktion Books, 2011), 16.

73 Yves Biraud to Andrija Štampar, 4 January 1947, WHO 453/2/1, 11.

74 ‘Expert Committee on Malaria, Report on the First Session’, Geneva, 22-25 April 1947, WHO.IC/83, 9.

75 Cueto et al., The World, 62.

76 Amrith, Decolonizing, 87–90.

77 ‘Memorandum on the Expert Committee on Malaria of WHO’, 7 October 1948, WHO1/453/2/15, 3–5.

78 Mihai Ciucă, ‘Memorandum’, 27 April 1948, WHO.IC/Mal.24, 2.

79 ‘Expert Committee on Malaria, Report on the First Session’, Geneva, 22-25 April 1947, WHO.IC/83, 14.

80 Socrates Litsios, ‘Malaria Control, the Cold War, and the Postwar Reorganization of International Assistance’, Medical Anthropology 17, no. 3 (1997): 257–60.

81 Pearson, The Colonial, 159–72 and James Gillespie, ‘Europe, America, and the Space of International Health’, in Shifting, ed. Solomon et al., 132.

82 Official Records WHO no. 13, First WHA, Geneva, June 24–July 24, 1948, 40.

83 Ibid., 41.

84 Pearson, The Colonial, 52–60.

85 Official Records WHO no. 13, 300.

86 Ibid., 121.

87 Idem.

88 Amrith, Decolonizing, 53 and 62.

89 Anne-Emanuelle Birn and Raúl Necochea López eds., Peripheral Nerve. Health and Medicine in Cold War Latin America (Durham: Duke University Press, 2020).

90 Stepan, Eradication, 114; Marcos Cueto, Cold War, Deadly Fevers Malaria Eradication in Mexico, 1955–1975 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 24.

91 ‘Opinions of Members of the Ad-hoc Expert Committee on Malaria Concerning Recommendations to Governments on Measures Advised for Malaria Control’, WHO/EB3/10 Add.1, 15 February 1949, 3

92 Ibid., 4.

93 Ibid., 4, 7.

94 Ibid., 9.

95 Dora Vargha, ‘Technical Assistance and Socialist International Health: Hungary, WHO and the Korean War’, History and Technology 36, no. 3–4 (2020): 403–6.

96 John Farley, Brock Chisholm, the World Health Organization, and the Cold War (Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 2008), 160–5.

97 Webb, The Long, 94–5.

98 Hong, Cold War, 25.

99 Amrith, Decolonizing, 115.

100 Stepan, Eradication, 122.

101 Thomas Zimmer, ‘In the Name of World Health and Development: WHO and Malaria Eradication in India, 1949–1970’, in International Organizations and Development, 1945–1990, eds. M. Frey, S. Kunkel and C. Unger (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2014), 129.

102 ‘Report on the Second Malaria Conference of the Countries of South-East Europe’, 26–29 March 1957, WHO/Mal/187/EURO-107/2, 1953–1957, 2–9; ‘Report on the Third Malaria Conference for South-East European Countries’, Bucharest 23–30 June 1958, WHO/Mal/205 EURO-107.3, 10–38; Leonard Bruce-Chwatt and Julian de Zulueta, The Rise and Fall of Malaria in Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), 29–33, 42–52, 63–5, 146–66.

103 Gheorghe Lupaşcu, ‘The Organization of Active and Passive Surveillance in Malaria Eradication Programmes’, Third Malaria Conference for South-East European Countries (Bucharest, 23-30 June 1958), ROM 1957-1958, JKT III, SJ2, WHO7.0110, 6; Petr Sergiev in Official Records WHO no. 152, 150.

104 Andreas Hilger, ‘Communism, Decolonization and the Third World’, in Cambridge History of Communism. Volume 2: The Socialist Camp and World Power 1941–1960s, eds. N. Naimark, S. Pons and S. Quinn-Judge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 352.

105 ‘Conferința de Paludism – iulie 1958’ (Malaria Conference – July 1958), OMS, MSPS, 188-9.

106 ‘Report on the Third Malaria Conference’, 26.

107 On Soviet quasi-colonial policies towards nomads in Kazakhstan see Michaels, Curative, 153–8. On the transfer by Yugoslav physicians of their narratives about primitiveness and modernization in Macedonia to Guinea see Antić, ‘Imagining’, 242. On the overlap between civilizational visions of Romanian doctors and FRELIMO see Bogdan Iacob and Iolanda Vasile, ‘Agents of Decolonization? Romanian Activities in Mozambique’s Oil and Health Sectors (1976–1984)’, in Spaces of Interaction between the Socialist Camp and the Global South, eds. Anna Calori et al. (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2019), 157–8.

108 ‘Fond Special Eradicarea Paludismului’ (Special Collection, Eradication of Malaria) MSPS, Secretariat şi Relații cu Străinătatea, OMS 1958–1963, 144 and 42–1.

109 D. Sgîndăr, ‘Probleme tehnice’ (Administrative Matters), MSPS, Secretariat și Relații cu Străinătatea, CP-OMS 1962, 14.

110 Gabriele Gramiccia, ‘Report on a Visit to Moscow - Malaria Eradication Training Center, 14-21 March 1962’, Malaria-Eradication-Training 1959-1973, WHO7.0574, 1–3.

111 Artemy Kalinovsky, Laboratory of Socialist Development: Cold War Politics and Decolonization in Soviet Tajikistan (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2018), 20.

112 Michaels, Curative, 125–6.

113 Bogdan C. Iacob, ‘Paradoxes of Socialist Solidarity: Romanian and Czechoslovak Medical Teams in North Korea and Vietnam (1951–1962)’, Monde(s). Histoire, Espaces, Relations 20, no. 2 (2021): 117–40.

114 Aso, ‘Patriotic’, 440–1.

115 Alexei Lysenko, ‘Epidemiology of Malaria’, METC Doc-196, 1960, WHO7.0862, 39.

116 Ibid., 58.

117 Packard, A History, 162.

118 Swaroop and Guckel, ‘Report’, 4; Gabriele Gramiccia, ‘Rapporte sur une visite en Roumanie et Bulgarie’, 17–31 October 1959, Rapoarte 1958–61, OMS, MSPS, 89–95; Leonard Bruce-Chwatt, ‘USSR: Victory Ahead in a Long Campaign’, UNESCO Courier, 13 (1960), 17 and 32.

119 Projects Afro-2002, Malaria Consultant Services – West Africa, JKT 1, 1967–1974, WHO 22.0659, 1.

120 Ann Kelly, ‘Seeing Cellular Debris, Remembering a Soviet Method’, Visual Anthropology 29, no. 2 (2016): 133–58.

121 Official Records WHO, no. 111, 14th WHA, New Delhi, 7-24 February 1961, 186.

122 Ibid., 104.

123 Ibid., 105.

124 ‘Explanatory Memorandum and Draft Resolution submitted by the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics’, 19 January 1961, 14th WHA, A14/P&B/10, 1–7.

125 Official Records WHO, no. 111, 308.

126 Official Records WHO No. 136, 17th WHA, Geneva, 3-20 March 1964, 243.

127 Ibid., 170.

128 Ibid., 242; Official Records of WHO No. 128, 16th WHA, Geneva 7-23 1963, 176; Official Records of WHO No. 144, 18th WHA, Geneva, 4-21 May 1965, 247.

129 Official Records of WHO No. 144, 28.

130 Ibid., 213.

131 ‘Continentul african și eradicarea malariei. Interviu cu Gh. Lupașcu’ (The African Continent and the Eradication of Malaria. Interview with Gh. Lupașcu’), Muncitorul Sanitar, 4 December 1965, 4.

132 Boris Petrovskij (USSR’s minister of health) in Official Records WHO no. 152, 85.

133 M. Aldea (Romania) in Ibid, 234–5.

134 WHA 20.14, Malaria Eradication Program, 2.

135 Ibid., 1.

136 Lysenko and Semashko, ‘Geography’, 35 and 38.

137 Ibid., 37.

138 Official Records of WHO no. 161, 20th WHA, Geneva, 8–26 May 1967, 227.

139 Cueto et al., The World, 108.

140 In Algeria all epidemiologists who managed local districts were ‘of foreign origin’, that is from socialist countries. ‘Quatrième trimestre – Pre-éradication du paludisme, 1965’, WHO/M2/372/3 (b) Malaria Eradication in Algeria, JKT 1&2, 1963–1967, 2.

141 Erez Manela, ‘Smallpox Eradication and the Rise of Global Governance’, in The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective, eds. N. Ferguson and C. Maier (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010), 251–62.

142 Webb, The Long, 105–11; Packard, A History, 284.

143 Zimmer, ‘In the Name’, 141.

144 Y.F. Li et al., ‘Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane Usage in the Former Soviet Union’, Science of the Total Environment 357 (2006): 141–3; Aso, ‘Patriotic Hygiene’, 441.

145 Iftimovici, Fraţii, 9.

146 Socrates Litsios, ‘Revisiting Bandoeng’, Social Medicine 8, no. 3 (2014): 113; Claudia Prinz, ‘Between “Local Knowledge’ and ‘Global Reach”: Diarrhoeal Diseases Control and the International Health Agenda’, Comprativ 43, no. 4–5 (2013): 96.