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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 August 2020
The Shanghai News was the People's Republic of China's (PRC's) first English-language newspaper. The News played an important, but forgotten, role in the development of the PRC's “external propaganda” apparatus, used to fight the ideological Cold War. The News was unusual in that it adopted a commercial business model and juxtaposed vehement anti-imperialist propaganda with advertising for multinational companies from “imperialist-capitalist countries.” This article argues that the News was a product of “New Democracy,” the central political paradigm of the PRC between 1949 and 1953. New Democracy, a policy of cross-class cooperation in the name of national reconstruction, is often dismissed as cynical tactic deployed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to diminish resistance during the takeover of China. The author argues for taking the real world impacts of New Democracy on life and work in early 1950s Shanghai seriously and cautions against teleological narratives.
I am grateful to Jennifer Altehenger, Felix Boecking, Koji Hirata, and Sha Qingqing for their insightful comments on drafts, as well as to my colleagues Amanda Behm, Oleg Benesch, David Clayton, and Simon Ditchfield. The Journal of Chinese History’s two anonymous reviewers provided thoughtful advice, for which I am very thankful.
1 The Shanghai News (TSN) (Chinese title Shanghai Xinwen bao, 上海新闻报) is not to be confused with the Chinese language newspaper Xinwen bao (新闻报) published in Shanghai between 1899 and 1949; or the newspaper Shen bao (申报), published between 1872 and 1949, which used the English title Shanghai News. Please also note that the Chinese names of organizations are given in footnotes throughout for the sake of brevity.
2 The News has received little attention from historians, with the exception of a brief discussion in Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N., Global Shanghai, 1850–2010: A History in Fragments (London: Routledge, 2009), 88–93Google Scholar, and mentions in Hooper, Beverley, China Stands Up: Ending the Western Presence, 1948–1950 (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986), 150Google Scholar and in O'Brien, Neil L., An American Editor in Early Revolutionary China: John William Powell and the China Weekly/Monthly Review (New York: Routledge, 2003), 212Google Scholar. The absence of the News in historical overviews of the PRC's external propaganda is notable. See the following otherwise comprehensive accounts: Cagdas Ungor, “Reaching the Distant Comrade: Chinese Communist Propaganda Abroad (1949–1976)” (PhD diss., State University of New York at Binghamton, 2009); Shaoying, Xi 习少颖, 1949–1966 Nian Zhongguo duiwai xuanchuan shi yanjiu 1949–1966 年中国对外宣传史研究 (Wuhan: Huazhong Keji daxue, 2010)Google Scholar; Yao, Yao 姚遥, Xin Zhongguo duiwai xuanchuan shi: jiangou xiandai Zhongguo de guoji huayu quan 新中国对外宣传史: 建构现代中国的国际话语权 (Beijing: Qinghua daxue, 2014)Google Scholar.
3 Tse-tung, Mao, “On New Democracy,” January 1940, Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung: Volume II (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1965), 339–84Google Scholar.
4 Two particularly important interventions in this unfolding literature are Dilemmas of Victory: The Early Years of the People's Republic of China, edited by Brown, Jeremy and Pickowicz, Paul G. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Maoism at the Grassroots: Everyday Life in China's Era of High Socialism, edited by Brown, Jeremy and Johnson, Matthew D. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
5 Diamant, Neil J., “Policy Blending, Fuzzy Chronology, and Local Understandings of National Initiatives in Early 1950s China,” Frontiers of History in China 9.1 (2014), 83–101Google Scholar.
6 On different social groups see Cochran, Sherman and Zhengguang, Xie, The Lius of Shanghai (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mariani, Paul P., Church Militant: Bishop Kung and Catholic Resistance in Communist Shanghai (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Kuisong, Yang 杨奎松, Ren bu zhu de “guanhuai”: 1949 nian qianhou de shusheng yu zhengzhi 忍不住的“关怀”: 1949 年前后的书生与政治, rev. version (Guilin: Guangxi shifan daxue, 2014)Google Scholar.
7 Nara Dillon, “New Democracy and the Demise of Private Charity in Shanghai,” in Dilemmas of Victory, ed. Brown and Pickowicz, 80–102. The origins of the concept are explored in Schram, Stuart R., Mao's Raod to Power: Revolutionary Writings, 1912–1949, Volume 7: New Democracy, 1939–1941 (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2005), 330–69Google Scholar. There is an extensive literature on the origins and development of the theory in Chinese. Recent publications include Yu Huamin 于化民, “Zhonghua renmin gongheguo chengli qian Zhonggong dui xiang shehuizhuyi guodu zhi yu chou” 中华人民共和国成立前中共对向社会主义过渡之预筹, Shixue Yuekan 2018.01, 70–85; and Xiao Donglian 萧冬连, “Zai yi xin minzhuzhuyi de tizao jieshu” 再议新民主主义的提早结束, Zhonggong dangshi yanjiu, 2014.8, 51–64.
8 Frank Dikötter has argued for example that “In reality, as in the satellite states of the Soviet Union, the New Democracy was part of a bogus coalition between different forces that the party was simply unable to control at this early stage.” Dikötter, Frank, The Tragedy of Liberation: A History of the Chinese Revolution, 1945–57 (London: Bloomsbury, 2013), 165–66Google Scholar.
9 Cliver, Robert K., “Surviving Socialism: Private Industry and the Transition to Socialism in China, 1945–1958,” Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review 16 (2015), 139–64Google Scholar; Howlett, Jonathan J., “Accelerated Transition: British Enterprises in Shanghai and the Transition to Socialism,” European Journal of East Asian Studies 13.2 (2014), 163–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar; So, Bennis Wai-yip, “The Policy-Making and Political Economy of the Abolition of Private Ownership in the Early 1950s: Findings from New Material,” The China Quarterly 171 (2002), 682–703Google Scholar.
10 Brown and Johnson, ‘Introduction,’ in Maoism at the Grassroots, ed. Brown and Johnson, 1–15.
11 Shanghai Jiefang 上海解放, edited by Shanghai Shi Dang”anguan 上海市档案馆 (Shanghai: Shanghai Sanlian Shudian, 1999), 14.
12 Altehenger, Jennifer E., “On Difficult New Terms: The Business of Lexicography in Mao Era China,” Modern Asian Studies 51.3 (2017), 622–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Culp, Robert, The Power of Print in Modern China: Intellectuals and Industrial Publishing from the End of Empire to Maoist State Socialism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Volland, Nicolai, “Cultural Entrepreneurship in the Twilight: The Shanghai Book Trade Association, 1945–57,” in The Business of Culture: Cultural Entrepreneurs in China and Southeast Asia, 1900–65, edited by Rea, Christopher and Volland, Nicolai (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2015)Google Scholar; Jishun, Zhang 张济顺, “Wushi niandai chu de Shanghai baoye zhuanzhi: cong minban dao dangguan” 五十年代初的上海报业转制: 从民办到党管, Yan huang chunqiu 4 (2012), 20–26Google Scholar; see also Fei-Hsien., Wang “A Crime of Being Self-Interested: Literary Piracy in Early Communist China, 1949–1953,” Twentieth-Century China 43.3 (2018), 271–94Google Scholar, and Wu, Zhou 周武, “Cong quanguoxing dao difanghua: 1945 zhi 1956 nian Shanghai chubanye de bianqian” 从全国性到地方化: 1945 至 1956 年上海出版业的变迁, Shi lin 6 (2006), 72–95Google Scholar.
13 Jishun, Zhang, “Thought Reform and Press Nationalization in Shanghai: the Wenhui Newspaper in the Early 1950s,” Twentieth-Century China 35.2 (2010), 52–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar; See also Chin, Sei Jeong, “The Historical Origins of the Nationalization of the Newspaper Industry in Modern China: A Case Study of the Shanghai Newspaper Industry, 1937–1953,” China Review 13.2 (2013), 1–34Google Scholar.
14 See as an example FitzGerald, C.P., “Persuasion and Propaganda in China,” The Australian Quarterly 28.3 (1956), 32–39Google Scholar. The term “propaganda” has negative connotations in contemporary English, but the Chinese “xuanchuan” (宣传) is a more neutral term connoting the dissemination of information. See Cheek, Timothy, Propaganda and Culture in Mao's China: Deng Tuo and the Intelligentsia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 14–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Yu, Frederick T.C., Mass Persuasion in Communist China (London: Pall Mall Press, 1964)Google Scholar.
15 The most comprehensive studies of external propaganda production in the PRC are Ungor, “Reaching the Distant Comrade”; and Yao, Xin Zhongguo duiwai xuanchuan shi. On foreign experts see Brady, Anne-Marie, Making the Foreign Serve China: Managing Foreigners in the People's Republic (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003)Google Scholar; Hooper, Beverley, Foreigners Under Mao: Western Lives in China, 1949–1976 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lovell, Julia, “The Uses of Foreigners in Mao-era China: ‘Techniques of Hospitality’ and International Image-building in the People's Republic, 1949–1976,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 25 (2015), 135–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lanjun, Xu, “Translation and Internationalism,” in Mao's Little Red Book: A Global History, edited by Cook, Alexander C. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 76–95Google Scholar. On contemporary propaganda, see Brady, Anne-Marie, Marketing Dictatorship: Propaganda and Thought Work in Contemporary China (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016)Google Scholar.
16 Yinghong, Cheng, Creating the New Man: From Enlightenment Ideals to Socialist Realities (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Cook, Mao's Little Red Book; Landsberger, Stefan, Chinese Propaganda Posters: From Revolution to Modernization (Amsterdam, Singapore; Armonk: The Pepin Press; M.E. Sharpe 1995, 1998, 2001)Google Scholar; Leese, Daniel, Mao Cult: Rhetoric and Ritual in China's Cultural Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Xing, Lu, The Rhetoric of Mao Zedong: Transforming China and Its People (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2017)Google Scholar.
17 Gerth, Karl, “Compromising with Consumerism in Socialist China: Transnational Flows and Internal Tensions in ‘Socialist Advertising,’” Past and Present 218.8 (2013), 222–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
18 Volland, Nicolai, Socialist Cosmopolitanism: The Chinese Literary Universe, 1945–1965 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
19 Wasserstrom, Global Shanghai, 91.
20 Shen Suru 沈苏儒, “Yi xin Zhongguo di yi zhang yingwen ribao ‘Shanghai Xinwen’” 忆新中国第一张英文日报: 《上海新闻》, Xinwen jizhe 2009.6, 88. Responsibility for administrative affairs transferred to the Shanghai News and Publishing Department on June 14, 1951 (Shanghai xinwen chuban chu, 上海新闻出版处): Shanghai Municipal Archives (hereafter SMA) A22-2-73. International News Bureau: Guoji xinwen ju 国际新闻局; GAPP: Zhongyang renmin zhengfu xinwen zongshu 中央人民政府新闻出版总署.
21 SMA B37-1-29-39.
22 O'Keefe, M. Timothy, “The Moscow News: Russia's First English Language Newspaper,” Journalism Quarterly 50.3 (1973), 463–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar; The Moscow News was founded by Anna Louise Strong (1885–1970). From 1932, the editor was Michael Borodin (1884–1951), who had represented the Comintern in China. Both Strong and Borodin had close ties to the CCP, but it is worth noting that publication of The Moscow News was suspended between February 1949 and January 1956 for political reasons.
23 SMA B37-1-29-39.
24 Shen, “Yi xin Zhongguo.”
25 On the number of foreigners in Shanghai see Weiming, Zhou 周伟明 and Zhenchang, Tang 唐振常, eds, Shanghai waishi zhi 上海外事志 (Shanghai: Shanghai shehui kexueyuan, 1999), 334–35Google Scholar.
26 Zhou and Tang, eds, Shanghai waishi zhi, 49, 312–13; Hooper, China Stands Up, 143–45. New China News Agency: Xinhua tongxun she 新华通讯社.
27 “To Our Readers,” TSN, June 10, 1950.
28 SMA B37-1-32.
29 “7,000 Koreans Massacred in ‘Death Valley’—Bestial U.S. Imperialist Butchery,” TSN, August 11, 1950; “Int'l Scientific Commission Confirms U.S. Bacterial Warfare,” TSN, September 15, 1952.
30 “Bestial Crimes of U.S. Troops in Korea,” TSN, September 8, 1950; “Stay Hand of American Fascist Murderers,” TSN, September 10, 1950; “U.S. Invasion of Korea,” TSN, September 17, 1950.
31 “A GI Story,” TSN, March 18, 1951; “War Prisoners in Korea Calling,” TSN, May 3, 1951; “Greetings from Other POW's,” TSN, July 3, 1951.
32 “Support Iranians’ Fight for Oil Nationalization,” TSN, July 10, 1951; “Egyptians, be Resolute in Anti-British Struggle,” TSN, October 24, 1951; “National Liberation Movement in Colonies & Dependent Countries,” TSN, February 20, 1952.
33 TSN, June 18, 1950.
34 See for example, Song Qingling, “Shanghai's New Day has Dawned,” TSN, June 10, 1950.
35 “Fight of the Shanghai People in the Past Year,” TSN, October 22, 1950; “A New Step to Peace,” TSN, August 28, 1952.
36 TSN, May 28, 1951.
37 “In Celebration of the Army Day,” TSN, August 1, 1951.
38 “Just Received Fresh Trappist Cheese,” TSN, October 19, 1952; TSN, December 21, 1952.
39 One of the best-known cases of such behavior is Zheng Nian's account of sitting down to a breakfast of imported coffee and marmalade while Red Guards ransacked her house during the Cultural Revolution: Cheng, Nien, Life and Death in Shanghai (London: Grafton Books, 1987), 108Google Scholar; for more on elite lifestyles in “New China” see Hanchao, Lu, “Bourgeois Comfort under Proletarian Dictatorship: Home Life of Chinese Capitalists before the Cultural Revolution,” Journal of Social History 52.1 (2018), 74–100Google Scholar.
40 Cohen, Paul A., “Reflections on a Watershed Date: the 1949 Divide in Chinese History” in Twentieth Century China; New Approaches, edited by Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. (London: Routledge, 2003), 7–37Google Scholar.
41 SMA B37-1-29, SMA B37-1-29-9.
42 SMA B37-1-29-24.
43 “Notice,” TSN, November 12, 1950. On the prohibition of foreign films see Hooper, China Stands Up, 150–57.
44 SMA B37-1-32: the official exchange rate was one US Dollar to 28,500 Renminbi in December 1950. TSN, December 21, 1950.
45 SMA B37-1-32, SMA S314-4-5-11.
46 SMA B37-1-29-9.
47 SMA B35-2-78-21, SMA A73-1-82-40. In the first seven months of 1952 the highest monthly circulation figure was 71,854 in January (average 2,318 daily) and the lowest was 59,004 in June (average 1,966 daily).
48 SMA B37-1-29-55.
49 SMA B37-1-29-20.
50 An American Shanghai resident described the News in a letter home as their “last remnant of ‘cultural breakfast food’” in National Archives and Records Administration (hereafter NARA), Washington DC, Record Group 59, Box 4203, 793.00/1-2253. On the availability of English-language reading material in the PRC see Volland, Nicolai, “Clandestine Cosmopolitanism: Foreign Literature in the People's Republic of China, 1957–1977,” The Journal of Asian Studies 76.1 (2017), 185–210CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
51 Zhou and Tang, eds, Shanghai waishi zhi, 334–35.
52 Glennon, John P., Schwar, Harriet D., and Claussen, Paul, eds, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, Korea and China, Vol. VII, Part 2 (Washington DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1983)Google Scholar; Document 249, 611.93231/1-2651, The Department of State to Certain Diplomatic and Consular Offices, January 26, 1951; Foreign Assets Control.
53 For more on the International Bookstore (Guoji shudian 国际书店) see Ungor, “Reaching the Distant Comrade,” 206–20, 242–43; and Xu, “Translation and Internationalism,” 83–84.
54 SMA B37-1-29-39. “Nos 9 and 10 Bus Routes Adopt Winter Service Time,” TSN, November 15, 1950.
55 SMA B37-1-29-20. The newspaper was distributed widely within China, but not in great numbers: in north China, ninety-seven copies were sold in Beijing, forty-seven in Tianjin, four in Shanxi province and one in Inner Mongolia; in east China, forty-four copies were sold in Jiangsu province, thirty-seven in the city of Hangzhou, and thirty-seven in Shandong province, seventeen in Fujian, eight in Anhui and four in Jiangsu; in south and central China, forty-five copies were sold in the province of Guangdong, eighteen in Hunan, seventeen in Hubei, twelve in Guangxi and six in Henan; in the west, fourteen copies reached remote Gansu and two copies were purchased in Shaanxi; and in the southwest, twenty-one copies were sold in Sichuan province, four in Guizhou, and three each in Yunnan and Tibet.
56 SMA B37-1-29-39.
57 “Notice,” TSN, February 10, 1951.
58 SMA B37-1-28-15, SMA B37-1-29-24. The proportion of space devoted to advertising in the newspaper was 17 percent after the expansion.
59 SMA B37-1-22.
60 SMA B37-1-29-35. Dollar figures are derived from the official exchange rate printed in the News, fixed at 20,610 Renminbi to US$1 in the period between March 24 and May 22, 1951.
61 SMA B37-1-29-20. Northeast China Military Region: Dongbei junqu 东北军区.
62 SMA B37-1-29-20. If the News sold 261 copies every day in 1951 its annual overseas circulation would have been 81,432. To contextualize this number, the International Bookstore sold 670,000 periodicals overseas in total in 1951 (some of which may have included the News), these figures are from Ungor, “Reaching the Distant Comrade,” 254. The International Bookstore's overseas sales increased rapidly throughout the decade, reaching 7,520,000 in 1959.
63 SMA B37-1-29-20.
64 SMA B37-1-33.
65 Volland, Nicolai, “Translating the Socialist State: Cultural Exchange, National Identity, and the Socialist World in the Early PRC,” Twentieth-Century China 33:2 (2008), 51–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
66 SMA B37-1-29-61.
67 SMA B37-1-22. Newspaper Affairs Committee: She wu weiyuanhui 社务委员会.
68 SMA A22-2-73.
69 SMA B37-1-33. Prisoner of War Management Department of the CPVA: Zhongguo renmin zhiyuanjun fuguanchu jiaoyuke 中国人民志愿军俘管处教育科. Two other CPVA organizations were also refunded: the Political Department of the Ninth Army of the CPVA (Zhongguo renmin zhiyuanjun di jiu bingtuan zhengzhibu 中国人民志愿军第九兵团政治部) (775 issues) and the Political Department of the CPVA (Zhongguo renmin zhiyuanjun zhengzhibu 中国人民志愿军政治部) (167 issues).
70 On conditions in the camps see Farrar-Hockley, Anthony, The British Part in the Korean War, Vol II: An Honourable Discharge (London: HMSO, 1995), 266–93Google Scholar.
71 Bassett, Richard M. and Carlson, Lewis H., And the Wind Blew Cold: The Story of an American POW in North Korea (Ashland: Kent State University Press, 2002), 58–66Google Scholar.
72 Lech, Raymond B., Broken Soldiers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), 84, 94, 119Google Scholar. POWs also received People's China, the China Monthly Review, Cross Roads (from India), the New York and London editions of the Daily Worker, and For a Lasting Peace, for a People's Democracy!
73 “X'mas Festivities in POW Camp,” TSN, January 9, 1952.
74 “Introducing China Reconstructs,” China Reconstructs, 1.1 (1952). People's China was closed in December 1957 and replaced with the weekly news magazine Peking Review in March 1958, which is now published as Beijing Review. China Reconstructs later became a monthly magazine. It changed its name to China Today in 1990. On the Peking Review see Terrell, Robert L., “The First 25 Years of the Beijing Review, an official propaganda organ of the Communist Party of the People's Republic of China,” Gazette (Leiden, Netherlands) 37:3 (1986), 191–219CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
75 Ungor, “Reaching the Distant Comrade,” 56–60, 213–14.
76 Xi, 1949–1966 Nian Zhongguo duiwai xuanchuan shi yanjiu, 107.
77 An index for 1953 listed thirty-two articles on economic topics, twenty-nine on social affairs, twenty-nine on culture, seven on “general issues,” six pictorials, six on postage stamps, and five on ethnic minorities. China Reconstructs 2.6 (1953).
78 Tse-Tung, Mao, “Don't Hit Out in all Directions,” June 6, 1950, Selected Works of Mao Tse-Tung: Volume V (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1977), 33–36Google Scholar.
79 The College was founded in early 1950 as a sub-unit of the East China University of Political Studies and Military Science. O'Brien, An American Editor in Early Revolutionary China, 187. East China News College: Huadong xinwen xueyuan 华东新闻学院.
80 SMA B37-1-32, SMA S314-4-5-11.
81 SMA B37-1-29-39.
82 SMA B34-2-15. Central China University: Zhonghua daxue 中华大学.
83 SMA B34-2-15.
84 On thought reform see Smith, Aminda M., Thought Reform and China's Dangerous Classes: Reeducation, Resistance, and the People (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2012)Google Scholar and Henriot, Christian, “‘La Fermeture’: The Abolition of Prostitution in Shanghai, 1949–58,” The China Quarterly 142 (1995), 467–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
85 See Suru, Shen, Duiwai chuanbo xue gaiyao 对外传播学概要 (Beijing: Jinri Zhongguo, 1999)Google Scholar; Suru, Shen, Duiwai baodao yewu jichu 对外报道业务基础 (Beijing: Zhongguo jianshe, 1989)Google Scholar; Suru, Shen, Duiwai chuanbo de lilun he shixian 对外传播的理论和实现 (Beijing: Wuzhou chuanbo, 2004)Google Scholar.
86 SMA B34-2-15.
87 The biographical material in this paragraph is drawn from SMA B34-2-15 and Zhang Xitian 张锡田 and Qihe, Zhong 钟启河, eds, Hunanren zai haiwai (xia) 湖南人在海外(下) (Changsha: Yuelu, 2001), 665Google Scholar.
88 Averill, Stephen C., “Party, Society, and Local Elite in the Jiangxi Communist Movement,” The Journal of Asian Studies 46.2 (1987), 295CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
89 “Yuan Shanghai shi fushizhang, Shanghai shi Zhengxie fuzhuxi Jin Zhonghua tongzhi guhui anfangyi zai Shanghai juxing” 原上海市副市长、上海市政协副主席金仲华同志骨灰安放仪式在上海举行, Renmin ribao 人民日报, August 19, 1978. China Defense League: Baowei Zhongguo tongmeng 保卫中国同盟.
90 SMA C43-2-303-32. Jin worked for TASS and USIA in 1932–33 and 1945–48, respectively.
91 “Yuan Shanghai shi fushizhang.”
92 SMA A22–-2-73, SMA B37-1-32. Shanghai Municipal Party Committee Propaganda Bureau: Zhonggong Shanghai shiwei xuanchuanbu 中共上海市委宣传部; and Shanghai Foreign Affairs Department: Shanghai shi waishichu 上海市外事处.
93 Shen, “Yi xin Zhongguo.”
94 Dillon, “New Democracy and the Demise of Private Charity,” 80–81, 93–102.
95 SMA B35-2-112-1.
96 Zhang and Zhong, Hunanren zai haiwai, 665.
97 NARA RG 59, Box 4204, 793.00/4-753.
98 Zhang, “Thought Reform and Press Nationalization,” 52–80.
99 Shen, “Yi xin Zhongguo.” On the reorganization see “Wenjiao weiyuanhui guanyu Guoji Xinwen Ju gaizu wei Waiwen Chubanshe de baogao” 文教委员会关于国际新闻局改组为外文出版社的报告, in Zhonghua remin gongheguo chuban shiliao, di si juan: 1952 中华人民共和国出版史料， 第四卷：1952, edited by Zhonguo Chuban Shiliao Yanjiusuo 中国出版史科学研究所 and Zhongyang Dang'anguan 中央档案馆 (Beijing: Zhongguo Shuji, 1998), 38–39. Reporting of the Three and Five Antis Campaigns overseas became a matter for serious concern to the GAPP in the summer and autumn of 1952, see 86–87, 106–7, 202–9. Foreign Languages Press: Waiwen chubanshe 外文出版社.
100 “Notice,” TSN, December 28, 1950.
101 SMA B34-2-76.
102 Shen, “Yi xin Zhongguo.”
103 SMA B34-2-76. Foreign Languages Printing Press: Waiwen yinshuachang, 外文印刷厂.
104 Zhang, “Thought Reform and Press Nationalization,” 75–6.
105 “Song Qingling, huainian Jin Zhonghua—(Zhongguo Jianshe) de chuangshiren zhi yi” 怀念金仲华 《中国建设》的创始人之一, Renmin ribao, January 7, 1981.
106 Yin, Xue, 雷音, Yang Xianyi zhuan 杨宪益传 (Hong Kong: Ziyou zhong shushe, 2018), 160Google Scholar.