Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T04:54:22.276Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Paintings off the Peg: The Retail Sale of Paintings in Tudor and Early Stuart England

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 June 2021

Robert Tittler Open the ORCID record for Robert Tittler [Opens in a new window]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The scholarly consideration of the marketing of luxury goods like paintings in Renaissance Europe has rightly concentrated on the Italian and Netherlandish experiences, while the discussion of an English retail market for paintings has focused on a later era. This article investigates the retail sale of painting in Tudor and early Stuart times. It asks what sorts of paintings were sold, who sold them, and what sorts of spaces accommodated such sales. Whereas conventional art historical research has concentrated on the production and sale of portraits, the discovery of an early seventeenth-century list of coat of arms painters holding retail shops in London adds additional support to the prominence of arms painting in such retail sales. This article considers the social context underlying the importance of displaying coats of arms and shows that arms painters engaged in the retail sale as well as the production of arms. The article proceeds to examine the varieties of retail spaces in which sales took place and concludes with a consideration of how retail sale of paintings contributed to London's role as a cultural center.

Type
Original Manuscript
Information
Journal of British Studies , Volume 60 , Issue 4 , October 2021 , pp. 919 - 940
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The North American Conference on British Studies, 2021.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 For example, see the following recent monographs and compendia: North, Michael and Ormrod, David, eds., Art Markets in Europe, 1400–1800 (Aldershot, 1998)Google Scholar; Neher, Gabriel and Shepherd, Rupert, eds., Revaluing Renaissance Art (Aldershot, 2000)Google Scholar; Fantoni, Marcello, Matthew, Louisa C., and Matthews-Grieco, Sara F., eds., The Art Market in Italy (Modena, 2003)Google Scholar; Welch, Evelyn, Shopping in the Renaissance: Consumer Culture in Italy, 1400–1600 (London, 2005)Google Scholar; Blondé, Bruno, Stabel, Peter, and Stobart, Jon, eds., Buyers and Sellers: Retail Circuits and Practices in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Turnhout, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; de Marchi, Neil and Miergroet, Hans J., eds., Mapping Markets for Paintings in Europe, 1450–1750 (Turnout, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; O'Malley, Michelle and Welch, Evelyn, eds., The Material Renaissance (Manchester, 2007)Google Scholar; Prak, Maarten, “Painters, Guilds, and the Art Market during the Dutch Golden Age,” in Guilds, Innovation, and the European Economy, 1400–1800, ed. Epstein, S. R. and Prak, Maarten (Cambridge, 2008), 143–71Google Scholar.

2 John Evelyn, The Diary of John Evelyn, ed. E. S. de Beer (1959; repr., London, 2006), 25–26. In a note, Evelyn corrected the sum to “500 or 600 pounds.”

3 Solkin, David, Art in Britain, 1660–1815 (New Haven, 2015), 1Google Scholar.

4 Prak, “Painters, Guilds, and the Art Market,” 148, 162; Brian Cowan, “Arenas of Connoisseurship: Auctioning Art in Later Stuart England,” in North and Ormrod, Art Markets in Europe, 153–66, at 153.

5 Peck, Linda Levy, Consuming Splendor: Society and Culture in Seventeenth Century England (Cambridge, 2005), 171Google Scholar.

6 Stone, Lawrence, The Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558–1641 (Oxford, 1965), 712Google Scholar.

7 Piper, David, The English Face, ed. Rogers, Malcolm (London, 1992), 21Google Scholar.

8 Susan Foister, “Paintings and Other Works of Art in Sixteenth Century Inventories,” Burlington Magazine, no. 123 (1981): 273–82. See also Robert Tittler, The Face of the City: Civic Portraits and Civic Culture in Early Modern England (Manchester, 2007); Robert Tittler, Portraits, Painters, and Publics in Provincial England, 1540–1640 (Oxford, 2012), chaps. 2–3. The literature on collecting and commissioning activities of the aristocracy is copious; see Edward Chaney, The Evolution of English Collecting: The Reception of Italian Art in the Tudor and Stuart Periods (London, 2003); Christiane Hille, Visions of the Courtly Body: The Patronage of George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham, and the Triumph of Painting at the Stuart Court (Berlin, 2012); Christina M. Anderson, The Flemish Merchant of Venice: Daniel Nijs and the Sale of the Gonzaga Art Collection (New Haven, 2015); Catherine Daunt, “Heroes and Worthies: Emerging Antiquarianism and the Taste for Portrait Sets in England,” in Painting in Britain, 1500–1630: Production, Influences, and Patronage, ed. Tarnya Cooper et al. (Oxford, 2015), 362–75; Susan Bracken, “Collectors in England: Evolutions in Taste,” in Cooper et al., Painting in Britain, 1500–1630, 384–91.

9 James M. Osborne, ed., The Autobiography of Thomas Whythorne (Oxford, 1962), 11–12.

10 Horace Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting in England: With Some Account of the Principal Artists, new edition, revised, with additional notes, by Ralph N. Wornum, 3 vols. (London, 1876) 1:192.

11 G. Gilpin to Walsingham, November 1588, in R. B. Wernham, ed., Calendar of State Papers, Foreign Series, of the Reign of Elizabeth: July–December 1588, vol. 22 (London, 1936), 309.

12 R. E. G. Kirk and Ernest F. Kirk, eds., Return of Aliens Dwelling in the City and Suburbs of London, 4 vols. (Aberdeen, 1900–1908), 2:309.

13 Painter Stainers’ Company of London, Court Minute Book, 1623–1649, MS CLC/L/PA/B/001/MS05667/001, London Guildhall Library. (Hereafter this repository is cited as LGL.)

14 Leona Rostenberg, English Publishers in the Graphic Arts, 1599–1700: A Study of the Printsellers and Publishers of Engravings, Art, and Architectural Manuals (New York, 1963), 1.

15 Mark Eccles, “Bynneman's Books,” Library, 5th ser., 12, no. 1 (1957): 81–92, at 82–83, 85.

16 The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, 2 vols. (London 1991), s.v. “table, n.,” def. 3, “a board or other flat surface on which a picture is painted.”

17 Lucy Gent, Picture and Poetry, 1560–1620: Relations between Literature and the Visual Arts in the English Renaissance (Leamington Spa, 1981), 3; Tittler, Portraits, Painters, and Publics, 33–35; Daunt, “Heroes and Worthies,” 62–75.

18 Andrew Pettegree, Foreign Protestant Communities in Sixteenth Century London (Oxford, 1986), 230; Will of Robert Peake, The National Archives, PROB 11/52/357. (Hereafter this repository is cited as TNA.)

19 Rostenberg, English Publishers in the Graphic Arts, 20–22; Karen Hearn, s.v. “Robert Peake (c. 1551–1619),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online, https:doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/21685. (Hereafter this database is cited as ODNB.)

20 Hearn, “Robert Peake”; John Bargrave Collection, MS DL/C/B004/MS09171/021/107, London Metropolitan Archives (hereafter this repository is cited as LMA); Painter Stainers’ Company of London, Court Minute Book, 1623–1649, MS CLC/L/PA/B/001/MS05667/001/59, LGL; Mary Edmond, “‘Limners and Picturemakers,’ New Light on the Lives of Miniaturists and Large-Scale Portrait Painters Working in London in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” Walpole Society, no. 47 (1978–1980): 106–18, at 129; Christopher Wright, Catherine Gordon, and Mary Peskett Smith, eds., British and Irish Paintings in Public Collections (New Haven, 2006), 630; Edward Town, ed., “A Biographical Dictionary of London Painters, 1547–1625,” Walpole Society, no. 76 (2014): 1–236, at 153–54.

21 Related in Rostenberg, English Publishers in the Graphic Arts, 20–21. The year must have been ca. 1632: Dobson (1611–1646) was then finishing his apprenticeship at the age of twenty-one, and Van Dyck had just returned to England.

22 Nigel Llewellyn, “Claims to Status through Visual Codes: Heraldry on Post-Reformation Funeral Monuments,” in Chivalry in the Renaissance, ed. Sidney Anglo (Woodbridge, 1990), 145–60; Nigel Llewellyn, Funeral Monuments in Post-Reformation England (Cambridge, 2000), chap. 5.

23 Clifford Geertz, “Centers, Kings and Charisma: Reflections on the Symbolics of Power,” in Culture and Its Creators, ed. Joseph Ben-David and Terry Nicholas Clark (Chicago, 1977): 150–71, at 152.

24 Llewellyn Jewitt and W. H. St. John Hope, The Corporation Plate and Insignia of Office of the Cities and Towns of England and Wales, 2 vols. (London, 1895).

25 For example, An Acte Agaynst wearing of Costly Apparell, 1509–10, 1 Hen. 8, c. 14; Acte of Apparell, 1514–15, 6 Hen. 8, c. 1; Thacte of Apparrell, 1515, 7 Hen. 8, c. 6; An Acte for Reformacyon of Exvcesse in Aparayle, 1532–33, 24 Hen. 8, c. 13.

26 William Harrison, The Description of Englande (London, 1577), 128–29.

27 Peck, Consuming Splendor, 7–9; Keith Thomas, The Ends of Life: Roads to Fulfilment in Early Modern England (Oxford, 2009), 114–15.

28 Richard Cust, “The Material Culture of Lineage in Late-Tudor and Early-Stuart England,” in The Routledge Handbook of Material Culture in Early Modern Europe, ed. Catherine Richardson, Tara Hamling, and David Gaimster (Abingdon, 2017), 247–74, at 249.

29 [Painters’ bills], KLMUS 1990/399A, Tolson Museum, Huddersfield. See also Tittler, Robert, “Social Aspiration and the Malleability of Portraiture in Post-Reformation England: The Kaye Panels of Woodsome, Yorkshire, c. 1567,” Northern History 52, no. 2 (2015): 182–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar, esp. 195, fig. 2.

30 “Dethick's Funerals,” I, fols. 113v; 118r, 175r, 186r, 191r, 251r, 263r, College of Arms, London (hereafter this repository is cited as CA); [Painters’ bills],Vincent MS 188, fols., 3v, 5r, 9r, 10v, CA; [Painters’ bills], Vincent MS 92, fol. 466, CA.

31 Painters’ Work Book (1619–1634), O.01, fols. 17–18, CA.

32 Painters’ Work Book (1619–1634), O.01, fols. 22–23, CA.

33 As noted in Town, “Biographical Dictionary,” 164.

34 See Anthony R. J. S. Adolph, s.v. “Holme, Randle (1570/71–1655),” ODNB, https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/13584; Tittler, Robert and Evans, Shawn, “Randle Holme the Elder and the Development of Portraiture in North Wales, c.1600–1630,” British Art Journal 16, no. 2 (2015): 24–29Google Scholar, at 22–27, plate 1.

35 A herald painter would have been an officer of the College of Arms; a mere arms painter may have been licensed by the college but would not thereby have become an officer.

36 Philip Riden, ed., The Household Accounts of William Cavendish, Lord Cavendish of Hardwick, 1597–1607, vol. 1 (Chesterfield, 2016), 201.

37 Anthony Wagner and George Squibb, “Deputy Heralds,” in Frederick Emmison and Roy Stephens, eds., Tribute to an Antiquary: Essays Presented to Marc Fitch by Some of His Friends, ed. Frederick Emmison and Roy Stephens (London, 1976), 229–64, at 229.

38 The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (1971), s.v. “hedge.”

39 Cited in Cust, “Material Culture of Lineage,” 254.

40 William Smith Rouge Dragon Pursuivant, A Brief Discourse of the Causes of Discord Amongst the Officers of Arms: and of the Great Abuses and Absurdities Committed by Painters, to the Great Prejudice & Hindrance of ye same Office, 1609, MS V.a. 157, fol. 9v, Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington, DC.

41 Smith, A Brief Discourse, fols. 12v–13r; Ann Payne, “William Smith, Rouge Dragon Pursuivant: Appendix,” in Heralds and Heraldry in Shakespeare's England, ed. Nigel Ramsay (Donington, 2014), 45–67, at 62.

42 Francis Collins, ed., Register of the Freemen of the City of York, 1559–1759 (Durham, 1900), 28; Wagner and Squibb, “Deputy Heralds,” 234, 249, 253; Smith, A Brief Discourse, fols. 12v–13r; Payne, “William Smith, Rouge Dragon,” 62.

43 Randle Holme the elder to Sir Richard St. George, Norroy King of Arms, 23 May 1623 (or 1624), in Letters on the Claims of the College of Arms in the time of James I by Leonard Smethley and Randle Holme, ed. F. R. Raines (Manchester, 1875), 30–31.

44 Index of Wills in the York Registry, vol. 22, 1585–1594 (York, 1897), 3; Smith, A Brief Discourse, fol. 14r.

45 Anthony R. J. S. Adolph, s. v. “Dethick, Sir William (1543–1612),” ODNB, https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/7558.

46 Wagner and Squibb, “Deputy Heralds,” 235–36. The practice is highlighted again in the protracted court case brought by the Garter King of Arms against the Painter-Stainers’ Company in the High Court of Chivalry (1634–1637) and seems by then to have been common knowledge. For example, see “Proceedings of 1634,” in Cases in the High Court of Chivalry, 1634–1640, ed. Richard P. Cust and Andrew Hopper (London, 2006), 150–51.

47 Claire Walsh, “Social Meaning and Social Space in the Shopping Galleries of Early Modern London,” in A Nation of Shopkeepers: Five Centuries of British Retailing, ed. John Benson and Laura Ugolini (London, 2003), 52–79, at 69. The unnamed painter may well have been the prominent painter-stainer Arthur Cutler, who had a shop in that street between ca. 1583 and his death in 1595. See Robert Tittler, Early Modern British Painters, c. 1500–1640, last revised September 2019, https://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/980096/. (Hereafter this database is cited as EMPB)

48 Anthony Wagner, Heralds of England (1967), 237, as cited in Alan Borg, The History of the Worshipful Company of Painters, Otherwise Painter-Stainers (Huddersfield, 2005), 31.

49 “William Smith's Discourses,” V.a. 157, fol. 6r, Folger Shakespeare Library.

50 Roger Leigh's “Aldermen of London,” MSS 32132–52, 32170–73, LGL.

51 Derek Keene, “Sites of Desire: Shops, Selds, and Wardrobes in London and Other English Cities, 1100–1500,” in Blondé, Stabel, and Stobart, Buyers and Sellers, 125–53, at 127–30.

52 Wagner and Squibb, “Deputy Heralds,” 235.

53 The shopkeeper was Ralph Clarke, of Grantham (d. 1630); his inventory postmortem is catalogued as Inv. 136B/503 in the Lincolnshire Record Office, and cited in Barley, L. B. and Barley, M. W., eds., “Lincolnshire Shopkeepers in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” Lincolnshire Historian 2, no. 9 (1962): 9–21Google Scholar, at 14–15. See also Peter Clark and Jean Hosking, eds., Population Estimates of English Small Towns, 1550–1851, rev. ed. (Leicester, 1993), 97.

54 A Book of Arms, MS GB233/Adv.MS.31.4.6, fol. 88v, National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh.

55 The source of the data for the table is A Book of Arms, MS GB233/Adv.MS.31.4.6, fol. 88v, National Library of Scotland, which describes those who “kepte open shops and showes of armes according to the Customn of London and acording to our corporation and never questind nor for byden by any athourt[y].” The identification of names is from Tittler, EMBP.

56 Tittler, EMBP, entries for Greenwood, Kimby, and Kimby.

57 See J. H. Parker Oxspring, The Painter-Stainers and Their Dispute with the Heralds, 3 vols. ([Stafford?], 1966).

58 G. D. Squibb, ed., Munimenta Heraldica MCCCCLXXXIV to MCMLXXXIV (London, 1985), 108.

59 Tittler, EMBP, entry for Greenwood, Robert.

60 Tittler, EMBP, entries for Greenwood, Robert; Thompson, Samuel.

61 Tittler, EMBP, entries for Greenwood, Robert; Winchell, William.

62 Tittler, EMBP, entry for Scarlett, Richard.

63 Tittler, EMBP, entries for Treswell, Ralph; John Schofield, s. v. “Treswell, Ralph (c. 1540–1616/17),” ODNB, https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/38077.

64 Tittler, EMBP, entries for Kimby, Robert; Kimby, Richard.

65 Tittler, EMBP, entry for Segar, William; Anthony R. J. S. Adolph, s. v. “Segar, Sir William (c. 1544–1633),” ODNB, https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/25033.

66 Articles agreed by the College of Arms and the Company of Painter-Stainers, MS Num. Sch. 02/03/007 (February, 1621/2), CA.

67 Wyman H. Herendeen, s. v., “Brooke [Brookesmouth], Ralph (c. 1553–1625),” ODNB, https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/3552.

68 Painter Stainers’ Company of London, Court Minute Book, 1623–1649, MS CLC/L/PA/B/001/MS05667/001/39, LGL; Richard Cust and Andrew Hopper, eds., “348 Kings of Arms v Painters and Stainers,” The Court of Chivalry, 1634–40, British History Online, accessed 12 February 2021, https://www.british-history.ac.uk/no-series/court-of-chivalry; Painters’ Workbook (1619–1634), O.01, fols. 17r, 17v, 19v, 21v, 22v, 29r, CA.

69 Tittler, EMBP, entry for Winchell, William.

70 Town, “Biographical Dictionary,” 111; “Dethick's Funerals,” I, fols. 118r, 175r, 191r, 251r, CA.

71 Adolph, “Dethick.”

72 Act Books, Archdeaconry Court of London, MS L/AL/C/001/MS09050/004/310v, LMA; Town, “Biographical Dictionary,” 192.

73 Edward Croft-Murray, Decorative Painting in England, 1537–1837 (London, 1962), 189; Albert Feuillerat, ed., Documents Relating to the Office of the Revels in the Time of Queen Elizabeth (Louvain, 1908), 231, 288; Town, “Biographical Dictionary,” 57; Parish Register, Southwark St Saviour, MS P92/SAV/3001, LMA; Token Books of St. Saviour's, Southwark, MS P92/SAV/184/Book 184.4.5, LMA. I am grateful to Professor Alan H. Nelson for the last reference.

74 F. J. Fisher, London and the English Economy, 1500–1700, ed. P. J. Corfield and N. B. Harte (London, 1990), 177–79.

75 City of London, Livery Companies' Commission, Report and Appendix (4 vols, 1884). vol. 3, 613–14. The charter was confirmed by James I's first parliament as An Acte for Redresse of Certaine Abuses and Deceipts used in Paintinge, 1603/4, 1 Jac. 1, c. 20.

76 Painter Stainers’ Company of London, Court Minute Book, 1623–1649, MS CLC/L/PA/B/001/MS05667/001, LGL.

77 The painter-stainer Henry Alward (1531–93), for example, did this over many years, his connections abroad no doubt extended via his Flemish-born wife. See Will of Henry Alward, TNA, PROB 11/82/273; Pleadings in the Court of Requests, TNA, Req 2/240/29; Kirk and Kirk, Return of Aliens Dwelling in the City and Suburbs of London, 2:258, 3:342; Loreen L. Giese, ed., London Consistory Court Depostions, 1536–1611 (London, 1955), 102–3; MS DL/C/214/50, LMA; Town, “Biographical Dictionary,” 27–28.

78 See Prak, “Painters, Guilds, and the Art Market,” esp. 146–58.

79 G. Gilpin to Walsingham, November 1588, in R. B. Wernham, ed., Calendar of State Papers, Foreign Series, of the Reign of Elizabeth: July–December 1588, vol. 22 (London, 1936), 309.

80 See Hope Walker, “Netherlandish Painters in Tudor London” (master's thesis, Courtauld Institute of Art, 2014), 44.

81 The Dutch merchant Peter Bremble, for example, imported six pictures into King's Lynn from Amsterdam in July 1612. See Alan Metters, ed., The King's Lynn Port Books, 1610–1614 (Norfolk, 2009), 82.

82 Town, “Biographical Dictionary,” 97–98; A Book of Arms, MS GB233/Adv.MS.31.4.6, fol. 88v, National Library of Scotland.

83 Ashmole, MS 836, fol. 619, Bodleian Library, Oxford. Cited in Thomas Woodcock, s. v. “Lilly, Henry (1588/9–1638),” ODNB, https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/16660.

84 Woodcock, “Lilly, Henry.”

85 Derek Keene, “Shops and Shopping in Medieval London,” in Medieval Art, Architecture and Archaeology in Medieval London, ed. Lindy Grant (Oxford, 1990), 29–46.

86 Jon Stobart, “The Shopping Streets of Provincial England, 1650–1840,” in The Landscape of Consumption, Shopping Streets and Cultures in Western Europe, 1600–1900, ed. Jan Hein Furnée and Clé Lesger (Basingstoke, 2014), 16–36, at 17; Kathryn A. Morrison, English Shops and Shopping: An Architectural History (London, 2003), 18–20.

87 Jon Stobart, “Accommodating the Shop; The Commercial Use of Domestic Space in English Provincial Towns, c. 1660–1740,” Città e Storia 2, no. 2 (2007): 351–63; Keene, “Shops and Shopping,” 36.

88 Morrison, English Shops and Shopping, 7.

89 Peter W. M. Blayney, The Bookshops in Paul's Cross Churchyard (London, 1990), 10n55 (my emphasis).

90 Keene, “Shops and Shopping,” 34; Derek Keene, “Sites of Desire: Shops, Selds, and Wardrobes in London and other English Cities, 1100–1550,” in Blondé, Stabel, and Stobart, Buyers and Sellers, 125–53, at 131.

91 State Papers Domestic, Eliz. I, 1578, TNA, SP 12/125/28; Will of William Wygynton, TNA, PROB 11/64/161; Chief Justice's Roll, Court of Common Pleas, 35 Hen. VIII, TNA, CP 40/1120/1544; Town, “Biographical Dictionary,” 189–90; Deeds of Property, Painters’ Hall, MS CLC/PA/G/012/MS05670/16, LGL.

92 John Schofield, Medieval London Houses (London, 1994), 71–74; Dorian Gerhold, London Plotted: Plans of London Buildings c. 1450–1720, ed. Sheila O'Connell (London, 2016), 24.

93 Gerard Malynes, Consvetvdo, Vex Lex Mercatoria, Or The Ancient Law-Merchant (1622), 93.

94 Lena Cowen Orlin, “Boundary Disputes in Early Modern London,” in Material London, ca. 1600, ed. Lena Cowen Orlin (Philadelphia, 2000), 344–76, at 347; Keene, “Sites of Desire,” 147.

95 John Eliot, Ortho-Epia Gallica: Eliot's Fruits for the French (1593), 75–82. I am grateful to Edward Town for this reference.

96 Keene, “Shops and Shopping,” 36; Blayney, Bookshops in Paul's Cross Churchyard, 11.

97 Town, “Biographical Dictionary,” 228.

98 Gerhold, London Plotted, 24.

99 Records of London's Livery Companies Online, s.v. “Romney, Francis,” accessed 12 February 2021, www.londonroll.org; D. J. Keene and Vanessa Harding, eds., Historical Gazetteer of London before the Great Fire: Cheapside (Cambridge 1987), 105/20 B-C.

100 Ann Saunders, ed., The Royal Exchange (London, 1997), 89; Walsh, “Social Meaning and Social Space,” 53–54.

101 Town, “Biographical Dictionary,” 26, 162, 170; Book of Arms, MS DL/AL/C/001/MS09050/006/88v, LMA. As none of them were cited in the Scottish National Library list as arms painters, they may have been selling other forms of paintings, especially portraits or copies. A Book of Arms, MS GB233/Adv.MS.31.4.6, fol. 88v, National Library of Scotland.

102 For example, see George Carleton the elder, who rose to the office of master of the company, held several shops in the Royal Exchange, but appears to have worked as a successful mercer, holding and letting his shops as an investment. Painter Stainers’ Company of London, Court Minute Book, 1623–1649, MS CLC/L/PA/B/001/MS05667/001/1r, LGL; Borg, History of the Painter-Stainers, 210; Will of George Carleton the elder, TNA, PROB 11/168/379; Court of Requests Pleadings, James I, TNA, Req 2/407/19; Town, “Biographical Dictionary,” 52. John Potkin the elder, also a master of the company, held leases to one and a half shops on the Exchange, though it is not clear that he used them for retail sales. See Borg, History of the Painter-Stainers, 49–52, 210; MS CLC/L/PA/B/001/MS05667/001/1, LGL.; J. L. Chester, London Marriage Licenses, 1521–1869, ed. Joseph Foster (London, 1884), col. 167; Town, “Biographical Dictionary,” 158; G. G. Harris, ed., List of Witnesses in the High Court of Admiralty, 1619–1643, 2 vols. (London, 2010), 1:243.

103 Ben Jonson, “To a Friend, an Epigram of Him,” in The Works of the English Poets, from Chaucer to Cowper, vol. 5, ed. Alexander Chalmers, (London, 1810) 538.

104 William Painter, prologue to Chaucer Newly Painted (London, 1623), n.p.

105 Blayney, Peter W. M., The Stationers’ Company and the Printers of London, 1501–1557, 2 vols. (Cambridge, 2013), 1:2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

106 See Katherine Coombs, “‘A Gentle Kind of Painting’: Limning in 16th-Century England,” in European Visions, American Voices, ed. Kim Sloan (London, 2009), 77–84.

107 City of London, Livery Company Commission, vol. 3, Reports and Appendix (London, 1884), 617.

108 Vanessa Harding, “Shops, Markets and Retailers in London's Cheapside,” in Blondé, Stabel, and Stobart, Buyers and Sellers, 155–70, at 166–67.

109 Painter Stainers’ Company of London, Court Minute Book, 1623–1649, MS CLC/L/PA/B/001/MS05667/001, LGL.

110 Painter Stainers’ Company of London, Court Minute Book, 1623–1649, MS CLC/L/PA/B/001/MS05667/001, LGL; Borg, History of the Painter-Stainers, 57.

111 Linda Levy Peck, “Building, Buying, and Collecting in London,” in Orlin, Material London, 268–90, at 281.

112 Foister, “Paintings and Other Works of Art in Sixteenth Century Inventories,” 273–82; Tittler, Portraits, Painters, and Publics, chaps. 2–3; Daunt, “Heroes and Worthies,” 362–75; Bracken, “Collectors in England,” 384–91.