Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-03T19:25:50.900Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Labour Party, Women, and the Problem of Gender, 1951–1966

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 January 2014

Amy Black  and
Stephen Brooke
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Following the 1966 General Election, the Labour Party's Home Policy Committee observed that the party had, “for the first time, obtained a majority of the female vote” and remarked, “it would be very satisfactory if we could retain it.” Two years later, the Report of the Committee of Enquiry into Party Organisation emphasized the “imperative that the Party concerns itself with how to win much more support among women.” These comments not only betrayed a serious weakness in Labour's electoral support between 1951 and 1966 but also acknowledged an important lacuna in its broader political outlook.

Given the party's electoral difficulties in the period after 1951, the first concern was particularly apposite. Beatrix Campbell, Nicky Hart, and Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska have underlined the importance of this gender gap favoring the Conservatives after 1950 (see fig. 1). In the elections of 1951 and 1955, for example, Labour's vote among women lagged twelve and thirteen percentage points behind that of the Conservatives. Only in two elections between 1945 and 1970 did Labour enjoy leads among female voters, and these were much less substantial than those held by the Conservatives in 1951, 1955, 1959, and 1964. In rough numerical terms, this difference was potentially very significant. In 1951, for instance, women made up approximately 51.9 percent of the population of England, Scotland, and Wales and roughly 53.8 percent of those of voting age. With an electorate of 28.5 million, this meant a possible political advantage for the Conservatives of 1.2 million votes in an electoral contest where there were only .2 million votes between the two parties.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of British Studies , Volume 36 , Issue 4 , October 1997 , pp. 419 - 452
Copyright
Copyright © North American Conference of British Studies 1997

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Labour Party Archives, Manchester (hereafter LPA), Home Policy Committee, Re 20, “The 1966 General Election,” July 1966.

2 Labour Party, Report of the Committee of Enquiry into Party Organisation (London, 1968), p. 9Google Scholar.

3 See Campbell, Beatrix, Iron Ladies (London, 1987)Google Scholar; Hart, Nicky, “Gender and the Rise and Fall of Class Politics,” New Left Review 175 (May–June 1989): 19–47Google Scholar; and Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina, “Explaining the Gender Gap: The Conservative Party and the Women's Vote, 1945–64,” in The Conservatives and British Society, ed. Francis, Martin and Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina (Cardiff, 1996)Google Scholar.

4 Calculations are based on figures in Mitchell, B. R., British Historical Statistics (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 14–18Google Scholar.

5 See, e.g., LPA, Home Policy Committee, RD. 35, “Notes on the General Election,” March 1960.

6 See the critique in Siltanen, Janet and Stanworth, Michelle, eds., Women and the Public Sphere (London, 1984), esp. pt. 2Google Scholar.

7 Butler, David and Stokes, Donald, Political Change in Britain (London, 1969), 70 ffGoogle Scholar.

8 See Summerfield, Penny, Women Workers in the Second World War: Production and Patriarchy in Conflict (London, 1989)Google Scholar.

9 See Lant, Antonia, Blackout: Reinventing Women for British Wartime Cinema (Princeton, N.J., 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 See Hinton, James, “Militant Housewives: The British Housewives' League and the Attlee Government,” History Workshop Journal 38 (1994): 129–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar, “Women and the Labour Vote, 1945–50,” Labour History Review 57 (1992): 59–66Google Scholar: Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina, “Bread Rationing in Britain, July 1946–1948,” Twentieth-Century British History 4 (1993): 79–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and, in particular, “Rationing, Austerity and the Conservative Party Recovery after 1945,” Historical Journal 37 (1994): 173–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11 Taylor, John, “We Have the Lead in Leadership—Increase It,” Labour Woman 39, no. 4 (April 1951): 82Google Scholar.

12 Conservative Party, Home Truths (London, February 1951)Google Scholar.

13 See Smith, Harold L., “The Politics of Conservative Reform: The Equal Pay for Equal Work Issue, 1945–55,” Historical Journal 35 (1992): 410–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 See Zweiniger-Bargielowska, “Explaining the Gender Gap.”

15 See, e.g., Pugh, Martin, “Popular Conservatism in Britain: Continuity and Change, 1880–1987,” Journal of British Studies 27 (1988): 254–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lawrence, Jon, “Class and Gender in the Making of Urban Toryism, 1884–1914,” English Historical Review 108 (1993): 629–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jarvis, David, “Mrs Maggs and Betty: The Conservative Appeal to Women Voters in the 1920s,” Twentieth-Century British History 5 (1994): 129–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar, “The Conservative Party and the Politics of Gender, 1900–39,” in Francis and Zweiniger-Bargielowska, eds., The Conservatives and British Society.

16 Scott, Joan W., “Women in History: The Modern Period,” Past and Present, no. 101 (1983), p. 156Google Scholar, see also “Gender: A Useful Category of Analysis,” American Historical Review 91 (1986): 1053–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988)Google Scholar.

17 Lovenduski, Joni, “Sex, Gender and British Politics,” Parliamentary Affairs 49 (1996): 12CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 See Collette, Christine, For Labour and Women: The Women's Labour League, 1900–18 (Manchester, 1989)Google Scholar; Graves, Pamela, Labour Women: Women in British Working-Class Politics (Cambridge, 1994)Google Scholar; Savage, Michael, The Dynamics of Working-Class Politics: The Labour Movement in Preston, 1880–1940 (Cambridge, 1987)Google Scholar.

19 See Orwell, George, The Road to Wigan Pier (1937; reprint, New York, 1958)Google Scholar; Rice, Margery Spring, Working-Class Wives (1939; reprint, London, 1981)Google Scholar; Hoggart, Richard, The Uses of Literacy (London, 1957)Google Scholar.

20 See Smith, Harold, “Sex vs. Class: British Feminists and the Labour Movement, 1919–29,” Historian 47 (1984): 19–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pedersen, Susan, Family Dependence and the Origins of the Welfare State (Cambridge, 1993)Google Scholar; and Thane, Pat, “The Women of the British Labour Party and Feminism, 1906–45,” in British Feminism in the Twentieth Century, ed. Smith, Harold (Amherst, Mass., 1990), pp. 124–43Google Scholar; Harrison, Brian, “Class Politics: Margaret Bondfield, Susan Lawrence, and Ellen Wilkinson,” in his Prudent Revolutionaries (Oxford, 1987), pp. 125–50Google Scholar.

21 Rowbotham, Sheila, Woman's Consciousness, Man's World (Harmondsworth, 1973), p. 12Google Scholar.

22 See Parkin, Frank, Middle Class Radicalism: The Social Bases for the Campaign against Nuclear Disarmament (Manchester, 1968), p. 150Google Scholar; see also Liddington, Jill, The Road to Greenham Common: Feminism and Anti-militarism since 1820 (Syracuse, N.Y., 1991)Google Scholar; Driver, Christopher, The Disarmers: A Study in Protest (London, 1964)Google Scholar; Taylor, Richard, Against the Bomb (Oxford, 1988)Google Scholar.

23 See the Birmingham Feminist History Group, “Feminism as Femininity in the Nineteen-Fifties?” Feminist Review 3 (1979): 48–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 See Turnaturi, Gabriella, “Between Public and Private: The Birth of the Professional Housewife and the Female Consumer,” in Women and the State, ed. Sassoon, Anne Showstack (London, 1981), pp. 255–78Google Scholar; on the general question of consumerism, see Agnew, Jean-Christophe, “Coming Up for Air: Consumer Culture in Historical Perspective,” in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. Brewer, John and Porter, Roy (London and New York, 1993), pp. 19–39Google Scholar.

25 See figures in Ministry of Labour, Manpower: The Pattern of the Future (London, 1964), table 2 (d), p. 49Google Scholar; see also the contemporary interest in this marked by two works, Myrdal, Alva and Klein, Viola, Women's Two Rôles (1956; reprint, London, 1966)Google Scholar; and Klein, Viola, Britain's Married Women Workers (London, 1965)Google Scholar.

26 See, e.g., Young, Michael and Willmott, Peter, Family and Kinship in East London (1957; reprint, Harmondsworth, 1962)Google Scholar.

27 See figures in British Labour Statistics: Historical Abstract, 1886–1968 (London, 1971), tables 47 and 48, pp. 112–15Google Scholar.

28 The literature on this is enormous, but central texts are, e.g., Abrams, Mark, Rose, Richard, and Hinden, Rita, Must Labour Lose? (Harmondsworth, 1960)Google Scholar; Hobsbawm, Eric, “The Forward March of Labour Halted?” Politics for a Rational Left (London, 1989), pp. 9–28Google Scholar; Goldthorpe, J. E., Social Mobility and Class Structure in Modern Britain (Oxford, 1980)Google Scholar; Seabrook, Jeremy, What Went Wrong? People and the Ideals of the Labour Movement (London, 1978)Google Scholar.

29 Crewe, Ivor, “The Politics of ‘Affluent’ and ‘Traditional’ Workers in Britain,” British Journal of Political Science 3 (1983): 52Google Scholar. The exceptions are Cronin, James, “Politics, Class Structure, and the Enduring Weakness of British Social Democracy,” Journal of Social History 16 (1982–1983): 123–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar, Labour and British Society, 1918–79 (London, 1985)Google Scholar; Tiratsoo, Nick, “Popular Politics, Affluence and the Labour Party in the 1950s,” in Contemporary British History 1931–61, ed. Johnman, L., Gorst, T., and Lucas, W. Scott (London, 1991), pp. 44–61Google Scholar; and Brooke, Stephen, “Labour and the ‘Nation’ since 1945,” in Party, State and Nation in Modern Britain, ed. Lawrence, Jon and Taylor, Miles (Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1997), pp. 153–75Google Scholar.

30 See, e.g., Goldthorpe, John H., Lockwood, David, Bechhofer, Frank, and Platt, Jennifer, The Affluent Worker: Political Attitudes and Behaviour (Cambridge, 1968)Google Scholar.

31 Riley, Denise, “Am I That Name?” Feminism and the Category of ‘Women’ in History (Minneapolis, 1988), chap. 3Google Scholar.

32 See, e.g., Clark, Anna, The Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the Making of the British Working Class (London, 1995)Google Scholar; Hinton, James, “Voluntarism versus Jacobinism: Labor, Nation, and Citizenship in Britain, 1850–1950,” International Labor and Working-Class History 48 (1995): 68–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bourke, Joanna, Working-Class Cultures in Britain, 1890–1960: Gender, Class and Ethnicity (London, 1994)Google Scholar; Rose, Sonya, “Gender and Labor History: The Nineteenth-Century Legacy,” International Review of Social History 38, suppl. (1993): 145–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hall, Catherine, White, Male and Middle Class (New York, 1992)Google Scholar; Price, Richard, “The Future of Labour History,” International Review of Social History 36 (1991): 249–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harrison, Brian, “Class and Gender in Modern British Labour History,” Past and Present, no. 124 (1989), pp. 121–58Google Scholar; Scott, Joan W., “On Language, Gender and Working-Class History,” International Labor and Working Class History 31 (1987): 1–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Taylor, Barbara, Eve and the New Jerusalem (New York, 1983)Google Scholar; Graves, Pamela and White, Joseph, “‘An Army of Redressers’: The Recent Historiography of British Working Class Women,” International Labor and Working Class History 17 (1980): 1–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33 The SJCWWO was known formerly as the Standing Joint Committee of Women's Industrial Organizations.

34 See Smith, “Sex Vs. Class”; and Graves, Labour Women.

35 Thane, “The Women of the British Labour Party and Feminism.”

36 For a recent survey see Parr, Joy, “Gender History and Historical Practice,” Canadian Historical Review 76 (1995): 354–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 See, e.g., Scott, Joan, “Deconstructing Equality-versus-Difference: Or, The Uses of Poststructuralist Theory for Feminism,” Feminist Studies 14 (1988): 33–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 Rose, Sonya O., “Gender History/Women's History: Is Feminist Scholarship Losing Its Critical Edge?” Journal of Women's History 5 (1993): 93CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

39 Labour Party, Report of the Annual Conference of Labour Women (hereafter ACLW) (London, 1968), p. 26Google Scholar.

40 Quoted in Phillips, Melanie, The Divided House: Women at Westminster (London, 1980), p. 161Google Scholar.

41 ACLW (1967), p. 37.

42 Pugh, Martin, Women and the Women's Movement in Britain 1914–1959 (London, 1992), pp. 131–32Google Scholar.

43 See Smith. “Class vs. Sex”; and Graves, Labour Women.

44 See, e.g., Fielding, Steven, Thompson, Peter and Tiratsoo, Nick, “England Arise!”: The Labour Party and Popular Politics in 1940s Britain (Manchester, 1995), pp. 9, 183Google Scholar.

45 Trades Union Congress Report (hereafter TUCR) (1964), p. 459Google Scholar. It has been estimated that, in 1939, women represented one-eighth of the affiliated trade union membership; in 1968, one-fifth; and by 1980, one-third. See Labour Party, Women, Sexism and Socialism (London, 1980), p. 22Google Scholar. This compares to the estimated 50 percent or slightly more for women's membership in the Conservative Party over the same period. See Lovenduski, Joni, Norris, Pippa, and Burness, Catriona, “The Party and Women,” in Conservative Century: The Conservative Party Since 1900, ed. Seldon, Anthony and Ball, Stuart (Oxford, 1994), pp. 611, 624Google Scholar.

46 Hills, Jill, “Britain,” in The Politics of the Second Electorate: Women and Public Participation, ed. Lovenduski, Joni and Hills, Jill (London, 1981), p. 31Google Scholar.

47 See Carter, April, The Politics of Women's Rights (London, 1988), p. 125Google Scholar.

48 Labour Party, Agenda for the 37th Annual Conference of Labour Women (London, 1960), p. 5Google Scholar.

49 See LPA, NJC/M, NJC Minutes, 8 October 1953; NEC (2) 1953–54, Minutes, 28 October 1953.

50 See LPA, NJC, General Purposes Committee Minutes, 12 February 1953.

51 Editorial, Labour Woman 39, no. 5 (May 1951): 103Google Scholar.

52 See, e.g., Earnshaw, Harry, “Thanks to Our Women,” Labour Woman 40, no. 1 (January 1952): 241–42Google Scholar; and Wright, George, “Organise—and Educate,” Labour Woman 40, no. 8 (August 1952): 408–9Google Scholar.

53 LPA, Parliamentary Labour Party, Notes of points made by speakers at a discussion on the results of the municipal elections, 5 November 1947.

54 See, e.g., “An Open Letter to the Housewives' League,” People's Pictorial 2 (1953): 1Google Scholar.

55 International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam, Archives of the Socialist International, File 364, Experts' Conference on Problems of Organisation and Propaganda Technique, Dorking, 29 October–3 November 1950. We are grateful to Catherine Torrie for this reference.

56 LPA, Report of Elections Sub-Committee, “General Election: 1959,” 22 October 1959Google Scholar.

57 LPA, General Elections Sub-Committee, GE.E/Sub. 1, “General Election Issues,” 19 September 1959Google Scholar.

58 LPA, NEC, Staff Board, “Interim Report of the Staff Salaries Committee,” March 1960Google Scholar.

59 LPA, NLWAC, NLWAC/7/59–60, “Women's Organisation and Activities,” February 1960Google Scholar.

60 See Abrams et al., Must Labour Lose; Clancy Sigal, “To Fly a Kite,” and Samuels, Ralph, “The Deference Voter,” both in New Left Review 1 (January–February 1960): 22–5, 9–13Google Scholar.

61 LPA, Special Meeting, “The State of the Party,” 13 July 1960Google Scholar.

62 See, e.g., LPA, NEC, “Chief Youth Officer's Report on the Young Socialists' Organisation,” 24 February 1965Google Scholar.

63 Between 1945 and 1966, there were 110 female Labour M.P.s, compared to 114 Conservative. See Mellors, Colin, The British MP: A Socio-economic Study of the House of Commons (Farnborough, 1978), p. 107Google Scholar.

64 Quoted in Brookes, Pamela, Women at Westminster (London, 1967), p. 140Google Scholar.

65 Quoted in Stacey, Margaret and Price, Marion, Women, Power and Politics (London, 1981), p. 165Google Scholar.

66 Quoted in Phillips, , Divided House, p. 160Google Scholar.

67 Quoted in Vallance, Elizabeth, Women in the House: A Study of Women Members of Parliament (London, 1979), p. 197Google Scholar.

68 Currell, Melville, Political Women (London, 1974), p. 87Google Scholar.

69 Banks, Olive, The Politics of British Feminism (Aldershot, 1993), p. 45Google Scholar.

70 LPA, S. Barker to Women's Sections, Women's Constituency Committees and Federations, and Labour Women's Advisory Councils, 4 September 1961.

71 Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol. 658 (3 May 1961), col. 1259Google Scholar.

72 Quoted in Stacey, and Price, , Women, Power and Politics, p. 84Google Scholar.

73 Quoted in Wilson, Elizabeth, Halfway to Paradise: Women in Postwar Britain, 1945–1968 (London, 1980), p. 185Google Scholar.

74 See Mitchell, J., “The Longest Revolution,” New Left Review 40 (November–December 1966): 11–37Google Scholar.

75 London Daily Telegraph (8 October 1964).

76 Castle, Barbara, The Castle Diaries, 1974–6 (London, 1984), p. 388Google Scholar, and also comments in The Castle Diaries, 1964–70 (London, 1984). p. 373Google Scholar.

77 See, e.g., comments in Castle, The Castle Diaries 1974–6, p. 22; and Phillips, , Divided House, p. 163Google Scholar.

78 See Hinton, “Militant Housewives,” and “Women and the Labour Vote.”

79 See Brooke, Stephen, Labour's War (Oxford, 1992), pp. 149–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

80 Labour Party, Another Hole in Your Purse (London, 1954), p. 5Google Scholar.

81 Labour Party, The Food Fraud (London, 1954), p. 15Google Scholar.

82 Labour Party, The High Price of Toryism (London, 1954), p. 9Google Scholar.

83 See polls in Gallup, G. H., ed., Gallup International Public Opinion Polls: Great Britain, vol. 1, 1939–68 (New York, 1976), pp. 307, 336, 390, 431, 530Google Scholar; see also LPA, R. 496, Cost of Living Working Party, “Report to Policy Committee,” March 1955Google Scholar.

84 Nuffield College, Oxford, G. D. H. Cole Papers, B/3/4/E/2, Fabian Conference on Problems Ahead, University College, Oxford, 31 March 1950.

85 See, e.g., Burton, Elaine, Battle for the Consumer (London, 1955)Google Scholar.

86 Labour Party, Political Education (London, 1956), p. 6Google Scholar.

87 See Tiratsoo, “Popular Politics, Affluence and the Labour Party in the 1950s.”

88 See Brooke, “Labour and the ‘Nation’ since 1945.”

89 See Crosland, C. A. R., The Future of Socialism (1956; reprint, New York, 1957), 212 ff.Google Scholar, and “Monopoly, Advertising and the Consumer,” in his The Conservative Enemy (London, 1962), esp. pp. 66–67Google Scholar.

90 Labour Party, Women in This Election … Vote for Them (London, 1964), p. 3Google Scholar.

91 Labour Party, Mothers (London, 1961), p. 2Google Scholar.

92 See Cronin, , Labour and Society in Britain, pp. 178–79Google Scholar.

93 On this, see Martin Francis, “Socialism and Gender,” in Francis, Martin, Building a New Britain: The Labour Governments and Socialism, 1945–51 (Manchester, in press)Google Scholar.

94 Jay, Douglas, The Socialist Case (1937; reprint, London, 1947), p. 258Google Scholar.

95 Labour Party, A Woman's Place Isn't Bounded by Four Walls (London, 1956), p. 8Google Scholar.

96 Labour Party, Don't Let Men Make All the Decisions (London, 1965), p. 7Google Scholar.

97 Randall, Vicky, Women and Politics (London, 1987), p. 263CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

98 See Labour Party, Women, Sexism and Socialism.

99 For an account of the postwar campaign for equal pay, see Lewis, Jane, Women in Britain since 1945: Women, Family, Work and the State in the Post-war Years (Oxford, 1992)Google Scholar.

100 See, e.g., TUCR for 1952, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1959, 1960, 1962, and 1963.

101 LPCR (1966), p. 291.

102 Quoted in Wilson, , Halfway to Paradise, p. 46Google Scholar.

103 Quoted in Lewis, , Women in Britain since 1945, pp. 79–80Google Scholar.

104 Minkin, Lewis, The Labour Party Conference (Harmondsworth, 1978), pp. 77–79Google Scholar.

105 LPA, NLWAC/2/M1, National Labour Women's Advisory Committee Minutes, 18 June 1953.

106 LPCR (1953), p. 201.

107 See Smith, , “The Politics of Conservative Reform: The Equal Pay for Equal Work Issue, 1945–55,” pp. 401–15Google Scholar.

108 ACLW (1953), p. 22.

109 TUCR (1963), p. 371.

110 Labour Party, Discrimination against Women: A Discussion Paper for Women's Sections (London, 1967), p.6Google Scholar.

111 Lewis, , Women in Britain since 1945, p. 42Google Scholar.

112 ACLW (1967), p. 36.

113 See Castle, Barbara, Fighting All the Way (London, 1993), p. 427Google Scholar; see also Crossman, Richard, The Diaries of a Cabinet Minister, vol. 3, Secretary of State for Social Services, 1968–70 (London, 1977)Google Scholar, entry for 4 September 1969, p. 627.

114 Vallance, , Women in the House, p. 88Google Scholar.

115 See Smith, , “Sex vs. Class,” pp. 25–27Google Scholar.

116 Graves, , Labour Women, p. 86Google Scholar.

117 This resolution was passed two years in a row; see ACLW (1960), p. 71, and ACLW (1961), p. 83.

118 See LPA, NJC/M/April/1965, SJCWWO minutes, 8 April 1965; NJC/M/July/1965, SJCWWO minutes, 8 July 1965; NLWAC/M/51/9/65, NLWAC minutes, 2 September 1965. See also Brookes, Barbara, Abortion in England, 1900–1967 (London, 1988), p. 111Google Scholar.

119 Mitchell, , “The Longest Revolution,” p. 11Google Scholar.

120 Labour Party, Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Party Organization, p. 9Google Scholar.

121 See, e.g., LPA, Re 366, Study Group on Discrimination against Women, “Draft Interim Report,” October 1968.

122 See, e.g., NLWAC, Discrimination against Women (London, 1968)Google Scholar; and Labour Research Department, Planning for Women at Work (London, 1969)Google Scholar.

123 Benn, Tony, Office without Power: Diaries, 1968–72 (London, 1988), p. 257Google Scholar.

124 NLWAC, Discrimination against Women.

125 See Wainwright, Hilary, Labour: A Tale of Two Parties (London, 1987), chap. 4Google Scholar; Seyd, Patrick, The Rise and Fall of the Labour Left (London, 1987), pp. 35–36, 47–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rowbotham, Sheila, Segal, Lynne, and Wainwright, Hilary, Beyond the Fragments (London, 1979)Google Scholar; Kogan, David and Kogan, Maurice, The Battle for the Labour Party (London, 1982)Google Scholar.

126 Gould, Joyce, interviewed in Focus: Labour Women's Bulletin, vol. 1 (March 1981)Google Scholar.

127 Tawney, R. H., “The Choice before the Labour Party,” Political Quarterly 3 (1932): 332CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

128 See, e.g., Baxter, Sarah, “Labour Men: The Biggest Vested Interest of Them All,” London New Statesman (3 July 1992)Google Scholar, and “A Boys' Own Story,” London New Statesman (29 October 1993)Google Scholar.

129 See Hughes, Colin and Wintour, Patrick, Labour Rebuilt (London, 1990), pp. 61, 200–201, 207Google Scholar; Shaw, Eric, The Labour Party since 1979 (London, 1994), p. 133Google Scholar.

130 See Short, Clare, “Women and the Labour Party,” Parliamentary Affairs 49 (1996): 17–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McSmith, Andy, John Smith (London, 1993)Google Scholar.

131 See Waters, Chris, British Socialists and the Politics of Popular Culture, 1884–1914 (Stanford, Calif., 1990)Google Scholar; Tiratsoo, “Popular Politics, Affluence and the Labour Party in the 1950s.”

132 Quoted in Carter, , The Politics of Women's Rights, p. 89Google Scholar.