Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T16:16:12.906Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

“That sash will hang you”: Political Clothing and Adornment in England, 1780–1840

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 December 2012

Abstract

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © North American Conference of British Studies 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Annual Register, or a View of the History, Politics, and Literature of the Year 1831, no. 73 (London, 1832), 462Google ScholarPubMed; Cobbett, William, ed., Cobbett's Weekly Political Register, 89 vols. (London, 1828–35), 70: 4 December 1830Google Scholar; Rudé, George, The Crowd in History: A Study of Popular Disturbances in France and England, 1730–1848 (New York, 1964), 154Google Scholar; Dyck, Ian, William Cobbett and Rural Popular Culture (Cambridge, 1992), 67.Google Scholar

2 Wells, Roger, “Rural Rebels in Southern England in the 1830s,” in Artisans, Peasants, and Proletarians, 1760–1860, ed. Emsley, Clive and Walvin, James (London, 1985), 134.Google Scholar

3 Jones, Peter, “Swing, Speenhamland and Rural Social Relations: The ‘Moral Economy’ of the English Crowd in the Nineteenth Century,” Social History (London) 32, no. 3 (August 2007): 271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

4 “United Parliament,” Examiner, 13 February 1831; “Special Commission for Wiltshire,” Hampshire Telegraph, 10 January 1831.

5 Epstein, James, Radical Expression: Political Language, Ritual, and Symbol in England, 1790–1850 (Oxford, 1994), 147–66.Google Scholar

6 Paul A. Pickering, “Class without Words: Symbolic Communication in the Chartist Movement,” Past and Present, no. 112 (February 1986): 155.

7 Hunt, Lynn, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984), 53.Google Scholar

8 Jarman, Neil, Material Conflicts: Parades and Visual Displays in Northern Ireland (Oxford, 1997), 6.Google Scholar

9 Wrigley, Richard, The Politics of Appearances: Representations of Dress in Revolutionary France (Oxford, 2002), 259CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sonescher, Michael, Sans-Culottes: An Eighteenth-Century Emblem in the French Revolution (Princeton, NJ, 2008)Google Scholar; Ribeiro, Aileen, Fashion and the French Revolution (London, 1988)Google Scholar.

10 James Epstein, “Understanding the Cap of Liberty: Symbolic Practice and Social Conflict in Early Nineteenth-Century England,” Past and Present, no. 122 (February 1989): 75–118.

11 Pickering, “Class without Words,” 154.

12 Barrell, John, The Spirit of Despotism: Invasions of Privacy in the 1790s (Oxford, 2006), 159.Google Scholar

13 Lemire, Beverly, “Second-Hand Beaux and ‘Red-Armed Belles’: Conflict and the Creation of Fashions in England, c. 1660–1800,” Continuity and Change 15, no. 3 (December 2000): 395CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Styles, John, The Dress of the People: Everyday Fashion in Eighteenth-Century England (New Haven, CT, 2007)Google Scholar; Batchelor, Jennie, Dress, Distress and Desire: Clothing and the Female Body in Eighteenth-Century Literature (Basingstoke, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lambert, Miles, “‘Cast-off Wearing Apparell’: The Consumption and Distribution of Second-Hand Clothing in Northern England during the Long Eighteenth Century,” Textile History 35, no. 1 (May 2004): 126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14 Blomley, Nicholas, “Making Private Property: Enclosure, Common Right and the Work of Hedges,” Rural History 18, no. 1 (April 2007): 4CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See the special issue on material culture, Journal of British Studies 48, no. 2 (April 2009).

15 Vernon, James, Politics and the People: A Study in English Political Culture, c. 1815–1867 (Cambridge, 1993), 105.Google Scholar

16 Mah, Harold, “Phantasies of the Public Sphere: Rethinking the Habermas of Historians,” Journal of Modern History 72, no. 1 (March 2000): 153–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pincus, Peter Lake and Steven, “Rethinking the Public Sphere in Early Modern England,” Journal of British Studies 45, no. 2 (April 2006): 270–92.Google Scholar

17 Butler, Judith, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex” (New York, 1993), 95Google Scholar; Sennett, Richard, The Fall of Public Man (Cambridge, 1977)Google Scholar; Parkins, Wendy, “Introduction,” in Fashioning the Body Politic: Dress, Gender, Citizenship, ed. Parkins, Wendy (Oxford, 2002), 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Paul A. Custer, “Refiguring Jemima: Gender, Work, and Politics in Lancashire, 1770–1820,” Past and Present, no. 195 (February 2007): 131–32. Again, this concept is common in French historiography: see Outram, Dorinda, The Body and the French Revolution (New Haven, CT, 1989)Google Scholar.

18 Wrigley, Politics of Appearances, 230–32.

19 The political agendas behind clothing in Scotland and Ireland during this period are too large to explore here. See Sally Tuckett, “Weaving the Nation: Scottish Clothing and Textile Cultures in the Long Eighteenth Century” (PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh, forthcoming). I am indebted to Tuckett for raising this idea.

20 James Gillray, “Orange Jumper,” 1809, Prints and Drawings 1851,0901.1269, British Museum (BM); George, M. Dorothy, Catalogue of Political and Personal Satires Preserved in the Department of Prints and Drawings in the British Museum (London, 1947)Google Scholar, vol. 8. See the British Museum's collection database search site at http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database.aspx.

21 Paulson, Ronald, Hogarth: Art and Politics, 1750–1764 (London, 1993), 152–84.Google Scholar

22 “Stanhope Miscellanies,” Quarterly Review 113 (1863): 250–51. The color of the Lowthers, Court Whig earls of Lonsdale, was blue. They shifted to Pittite Toryism in the 1810s, but, confusingly, the color of their old Tory opposition was orange. Westmorland election papers, 1818, D LONS/L13/11, box 1144, Cumbria Record Office, Carlisle.

23 “Close of the Middlesex Election,” Caledonian Mercury, 2 August 1802; Spence, Peter, The Birth of Romantic Radicalism: War, Popular Politics and English Radical Reformism, 1800–1815 (Aldershot, 1996), 180.Google Scholar

24 Hartley, J., History of the Westminster Election (London, 1784), 327Google Scholar; Anon., “The Queen of Clubs,” 1786, Prints and Drawings 1868,0808.5564, BM.

25 Chalus, Elaine, “Elite Women, Social Politics, and the Political World of Late Eighteenth-Century England,” Historical Journal 43, no. 3 (September 2000): 669–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and ‘Ladies Are Often Very Good Scaffoldings’: Women and Politics in the Age of Anne,” Parliamentary History 28, no. 1 (February 2009): 150–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

26 Benjamin Wilson, The Struggles of an Old Chartist (1887), cited in Pickering, “Class without Words,” 155–56.

27 Frank O’Gorman, “Campaign Rituals and Ceremonies: The Social Meaning of Elections in England, 1780–1860,” Past and Present, no. 135 (February 1992): 95, 104; 8 Geo. IV, c. 27, 21 June 1827.

28 Colley, Linda, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (New Haven, CT, 1992)Google Scholar.

29 Henry Kingsbury, “Restoration Dresses,” 1789, Prints and Drawings 1851,0901.456, BM.

30 London Chronicle, 27 March 1789; George, M. Dorothy, Catalogue of Political and Personal Satires Preserved in the Department of Prints and Drawings in the British Museum (London, 1938), vol. 6.Google Scholar

31 Jupp, Peter C. and Gittings, Clare, Death in England: An Illustrated History (Manchester, 1999), 222.Google Scholar

32 Elizabeth Wadsworth of Holden House, Ovenden, diaries and accounts 1787–1838, vol. 1, RMP: 1063, West Yorkshire Archives, Calderdale.

33 Colley, Britons, 183–84, 186; Myerley, Scott Hughes, British Military Spectacle: From the Napoleonic Wars through the Crimea (Cambridge, MA, 1996), 15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

34 “Lady Gorget Raising Recruits for Cox-Heath,” 1781, Prints and Drawings 1935,0522.1.55, BM.

35 See the portrait of Lady Worsley by Joshua Reynolds, 1776, Harewood House.

36 Gee, Austin, The British Volunteer Movement, 1794–1814 (Oxford, 2003), 69, 193–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

37 Wrigley, Politics of Appearances, 231; Philip Mansel, “Monarchy, Uniform and the Rise of the Frac, 1760–1830,” Past and Present, no. 96 (August 1982): 103–32.

38 Navickas, Katrina, Loyalism and Radicalism in Lancashire, 1798–1815 (Oxford, 2009), 49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

39 Smollett, Tobias, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771; repr., London, 1993), 73.Google Scholar

40 “Yorkshire Spring Assizes,” Hull Packet, 13 March 1840.

41 Gee, British Volunteer Movement, 193–94; “Loyal London Volunteers Preparing for a Field Day,” 1803, Curzon b.20(45), Bodleian Library (Bodl.), Oxford.

42 Prentice, Archibald, Historical Sketches and Recollections of Manchester (London, 1852), 5.Google Scholar

43 Vernon, Politics and the People, 116; Nicholas Mansfield, “Radical Banners as Sites of Memory: The National Banner Survey,” in Contested Sites: Commemoration, Memorials, and Popular Politics in Nineteenth-Century Britain, ed. Paul A. Pickering and Alex Tyrell (Aldershot, 2004), 92.

44 Berg, Maxine, Luxury and Pleasure in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Oxford, 2007), 109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

45 Styles, Dress of the People, 304; Kusamitsu, T., “‘Novelty, Give Us Novelty’: London Agents and Northern Manufacturers,” in Markets and Manufacture in Early Industrial Europe, ed. Berg, Maxine (London, 1991), 117Google Scholar; Lemire, “Second-Hand Beaux and ‘Red-Armed Belles,’” 391; “45” silver pin badge, 1763, OA.377, BM.

46 William Rowbottom, “Annals of Oldham,” vol. 1 (1787–99), transcript, Oldham Local Studies Library.

47 Manchester Mercury, 8 January 1793.

48 Leeds Mercury, 12 January 1793; Rogers, Nicholas, Crowds, Culture, and Politics in Georgian Britain (Oxford, 1998), 202CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Frank O’Gorman, “The Paine Burnings of 1792–3,” Past and Present, no. 193 (February 2006): 111–56.

49 Autobiography of James Weatherley (1794–1860), transcript, n.d., A.6.30, Chetham's Library, Manchester.

50 Goffin, Magdalen, ed., Diaries of Absalom Watkin, Manchester Man (Stroud, 1993), 11.Google Scholar

51 “Grand Procession,” Liverpool Mercury, 24 November 1820.

52 Wrigley, Politics of Appearances, 239.

53 Gabbett, Joseph, A Digested Abridgment, and Comparative View, of the Statute Law of England and Ireland (Dublin, 1812), 629.Google Scholar

54 “Trial of George Gordon,” in Cobbett's Complete Collection of State Trials and Proceedings for High Treason and Other Crimes and Misdemeanours from the Earliest Period to the Present Time, ed. Cobbett, William and Howell, T. B., 21 vols. (London, 1811–26), 19:536–38Google Scholar; Wise, Edward, The Law Relating to Riots and Unlawful Assemblies (London, 1848), 15Google Scholar; “The Monthly Chronologer,” London Magazine 49 (July 1780): 338; Gover, David, “Protestants and Vagabonds in the London Gordon Riots of 1780” (MA diss., University of Edinburgh, 2009), 23.Google Scholar

55 Robert Cruickshank, “Modern Reformers in Council,” 1818, Curzon b.6(42), Bodl.

56 60 Geo. III, c. 6, 1819; Robert Poole, “The March to Peterloo: Politics and Festivity in Late Georgian England,” Past and Present, no. 192 (February 2006): 141.

57 Canning, George, “On the Prince Regent's Speech,” in Speeches of the Right Honorable George Canning, ed. Thierry, Roger, 6 vols. (London, 1836), 4:182–83.Google Scholar

58 Epstein, “Understanding the Cap of Liberty,” 114 –15.

59 Hutton, Ronald, The Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain (Oxford, 1996), 285CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Monod, Paul Kléber, Jacobitism and the English People, 1688–1788 (London, 1993), 204, 209.Google Scholar

60 “Close of the Middlesex Election,” Caledonian Mercury, 2 August 1802.

61 Poole, “March to Peterloo,” 117; Bamford, Samuel, Passages in the Life of a Radical (London, 1840), 150.Google Scholar See the 1793 Banbury shag manufacturers’ strike: Aspinall, Arthur, Early English Trade Unions: Documents from the Home Office Papers (London, 1949), 19.Google Scholar

62 Bush, Michael L., “The Women at Peterloo: The Impact of Female Reform on the Manchester Meeting of 16 August 1819,” History 89, no. 294 (April 2004): 213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

63 Pickering, “Class without Words,” 160; “Manchester: 29 July 1837,” Manchester and Salford Advertiser, 29 July 1837.

64 Epstein, “Understanding the Cap of Liberty,” 75.

65 Thompson, Dorothy, The Early Chartists (London, 1971), 139CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “McDouall and Collins in Manchester,” Northern Star, 22 August 1840.

66 MacRaild, Donald, Culture, Conflict and Migration: The Irish in Victorian Cumbria (Liverpool, 1998), 114.Google Scholar

67 Thompson, E. P., The Making of the English Working Class, 2nd ed. (Harmondsworth, 1968), 689.Google Scholar

68 Bushaway, Bob, By Rite: Custom, Ceremony, and Community in England, 1700–1850 (London, 1982), 2122Google Scholar; Storch, Robert, ed., Popular Culture and Custom in Nineteenth Century England (London, 1982)Google Scholar; Burke, Peter, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (London, 1978)Google Scholar.

69 “A Particular Account of the Processions of the Different Trades, in Manchester: On the Day of the Coronation of their Majesties, King George the Third and Queen Charlotte, on Tuesday, Sept. 22. 1761,” broadside, F1761/1, Manchester Local Studies Library.

70 For example, at Preston and at Necton in Norfolk: “Preston,” Preston Chronicle, 1 June 1833; Hone, William, The Everyday Book, or a Guide to the Year (London, 1826), 672–73.Google Scholar

71 Styles, Dress of the People, 195–96.

72 Flintoff, Thomas R., Preston Guild Merchant: Preston's Week of Pageantry as Celebrated from 1328–1952 (Preston, 1973)Google Scholar; Elizabeth Wadsworth, diary, 3 February 1790, RMP: 1060, West Yorkshire Archives, Calderdale.

73 James, J., A History of the Worsted Manufacture in England (London, 1857), 595–97.Google Scholar

74 Young, Richard, “George Walker's ‘Costume of Yorkshire’ (1814): The Representation and Negotiation of Class Difference and Social Unrest,” Art History 19, no. 3 (June 1996): 407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

75 Vicinus, Martha, The Industrial Muse (London, 1974), 12Google Scholar; Tester, John, History of the Commencement, Progress, and Termination of the Bradford Contest (Bradford, 1826)Google Scholar, DB3 C39/5, West Yorkshire Archives, Bradford; Koditschek, Theodore, Class Formation and Urban-Industrial Society: Bradford, 1750–1850 (Cambridge, 1990), 471.Google Scholar

76 Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, 746–47.

77 Rogers, Crowds, Culture, and Politics, 258. See the Taunton reform procession: Bristol Mercury, 21 July 1832.

78 Handbill for Wibsey Ten Hours demonstration, 1833, Home Office (HO) 40/31, fol. 34, National Archives (NA), Kew, London.

79 Tilly, Charles, Popular Contention in Great Britain, 1758–1834 (London, 1995), 57.Google Scholar

80 Rogers, Crowds, Culture, and Politics, 266, 251; “Rejoicings in the Country,” Morning Chronicle, 20 November 1820.

81 Styles, Dress of the People, 303.

82 Lemire, “Second-Hand Beaux and ‘Red-Armed Belles,’” 395; SirEden, Frederick Morton, The State of the Poor, 3 vols. (London, 1797), 1:532Google Scholar, though he later modified his view.

83 Ribeiro, Aileen, Dress and Morality (Oxford, 2003), 113, 120–22.Google Scholar

84 Bamford, Passages in the Life of a Radical, 151.

85 Rogers, Crowds, Culture, and Politics, 267.

86 Monod, Jacobitism and the English People, 210, 219–20.

87 Rogers, Crowds, Culture, and Politics, 221.

88 Bush, “The Women at Peterloo,” 212; Cage, E. Claire, “The Sartorial Self: Neoclassical Fashion and Gender Identity in France, 1797–1804,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 42, no. 2 (Winter 2009): 193215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

89 Rose, Mary B., The Lancashire Cotton Industry: A History since 1700 (Preston, 1996), 159.Google Scholar

90 Colley, Britons, 277.

91 Whitbread, Helena, ed., The Diaries of Anne Lister of Shibden Hall, 1806–39 (West Yorkshire Archive Service, 2003), 156Google Scholar, in “From History to Herstory: Yorkshire Women's Lives On-Line, 1100 to the Present,” http://www.historytoherstory.org.uk/index.php?targetid=5 (accessed 3 March 2009).

92 “Leeds Reform Meeting Held on Hunslet Moor, September 20th 1819,” handbill, HO 33/2, fol. 109, NA; “Provincial Intelligence,” Examiner, 26 September 1819.

93 Parkins, “Introduction,” 5–6.

94 Batchelor, Dress, Distress and Desire, 11.

95 Rogers, Crowds, Culture, and Politics, 237, fig. 4.

96 Parkins, “Introduction,” 5–6; T. Lane, “Grand Entrance to Bamboozl’em,” 1821, Prints and Drawings 1935,0522.12.183, BM.

97 Randall, Adrian, Riotous Assemblies in Hanoverian England (Oxford, 2006), 276–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

98 “Provincial Intelligence,” Examiner, 26 September 1819.

99 “Halifax,” Manchester Observer, 9 October 1819; “Halifax Public Meeting,” The Times, 7 October 1819; Whitbread, Diaries of Anne Lister, 156–57.

100 Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, 388.

101 Ivens, Roger, “Extracts from the Diary of Canon F. R. Raines, Part 2,” Saddleworth Historical Society Bulletin 38, no. 2 (Summer 2008): 10.Google Scholar

102 Randall, Riotous Assemblies, 286; Peel, Frank, The Risings of the Luddites, Chartists, and Plug-Drawers (Brighouse, 1895), 102.Google Scholar

103 Yeo, Eileen, “Robert Owen and Radical Culture,” in Robert Owen, Prophet of the Poor, ed. Pollard, Sidney (London, 1971), 103.Google Scholar

104 Neal, Frank, Sectarian Violence: The Liverpool Experience, 1819–1914 (Manchester, 1988), 62.Google Scholar

105 McCalman, Iain, Radical Underworld: Prophets, Revolutionaries and Pornographers in London, 1795–1840 (Cambridge, 1988), 121.Google Scholar

106 Barrell, Spirit of Despotism, 201.

107 Eric Hobsbawm and George Rudé, Captain Swing (London, 1969), 211.

108 Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, 291; Poole, Steve, “‘Till our Liberties be Secure’: Popular Sovereignty and Public Space in Bristol, 1750–1850,” Urban History 26, no. 1 (May 1999): 40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

109 Hutton, Stations of the Sun, 200.

110 Seal, Graham, “Tradition and Agrarian Protest in Nineteenth-Century England and Wales,” Folklore 99, no. 2 (September 1988): 150, 152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Again, there are French parallels: see Sahlins, Peter, Forest Rites: The War of the Demoiselles in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, MA, 1994)Google Scholar.

111 Hutton, Stations of the Sun, 269. See W. Thompson to Earl Harewood, 29 April 1834, Lieutenancy Papers, WYA 250/6/2, box 2, West Yorkshire Archives, Leeds; “Demonstration of Tee-Totallers,” Charter, 26 May 1839.

112 Poole, “March to Peterloo,” 137; Bamford, Passages in the Life of a Radical, 132.

113 Hone, Everyday Book, 584.

114 Rogers, Crowds, Culture, and Politics, 263.

115 Yeo, “Robert Owen and Radical Culture,” 103.

116 Thompson, E. P., “Rough Music Reconsidered,” Folklore 103, no. 1 (April 1992): 326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

117 Tseëlon, Efrat, “Reflections on Mask and Carnival,” in Masquerade and Identities: Essays on Gender, Sexuality, and Marginality, ed. Tseëlon, Efrat (Abingdon, 2001), 27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stallybrass, Peter and White, Allon, Politics and Poetics of Transgression (London, 1986), 14.Google Scholar

118 Randall, Riotous Assemblies, 175.

119 Seal, “Tradition and Agrarian Protest,” 161; Jones, David J. V., Rebecca's Children: A Study of Rural Society, Crime, and Protest (Oxford, 1989)Google Scholar; Navickas, Katrina, “The Search for ‘General Ludd’: The Mythology of Luddism,” Social History (London) 30, no. 3 (August 2005): 282–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

120 Peel, Risings of the Luddites, 245–46.

121 Seal, “Tradition and Agrarian Protest,” 157; Young, “George Walker's ‘Costume of Yorkshire,’” 414; Simms, Norman, “Ned Ludd's Mummers Play,” Folklore 89, no. 2 (April 1978): 167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

122 Cohen, Anthony, The Symbolic Construction of Community (Abingdon, 1993), 102.Google Scholar

123 Howkins, Alun and Merricks, Linda, “‘Wee be Black as Hell’: Ritual, Disguise, and Rebellion,” Rural History 4, no. 1 (April 1993): 41–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar, highlights how face blacking was used to hide blasphemy during the early modern era. Examination of Isaac Woodhead, 5 February 1820, HO 64/1, fols. 129–30, NA; Thompson, E. P., Whigs and Hunters (Harmondsworth, 1977), 270.Google Scholar

124 Seal, “Tradition and Agrarian Protest,” 163.

125 Tseëlon, Masquerade and Identities, 4.

126 Young, “George Walker's ‘Costume of Yorkshire,’” 415; Anon., “The Leader of the Luddites,” May 1812, caricature, Working Class Movement Library, Salford.

127 Butler, Judith, “Gender as Performance,” in A Critical Sense: Interviews with Intellectuals, ed. Osborne, Peter (Basingstoke, 1996), 122.Google Scholar

128 Griffin, Carl, “‘Cut down by some cowardly miscreants’: Plant Maiming, or the Malicious Cutting of Flora, as an Act of Protest in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Rural England,” Rural History 19, no. 1 (April 2008): 2954.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

129 Clive Behagg, “Secrecy, Ritual, and Folk Violence,” in Storch, Popular Culture and Custom, 155, 161.

130 In April 1812, government spies wearing white caps attempted to attend a Luddite meeting on Dean Moor, Lancashire, but were quickly identified. Prentice, Historical Recollections of Manchester, 56.

131 Epstein, “Understanding the Cap of Liberty,” 116.

132 Hobsbawm, Eric J., “Introduction: Inventing Traditions,” in The Invention of Tradition, ed. Hobsbawm, Eric J. and Ranger, Terence O. (Cambridge, 1983), 114Google Scholar; Hopkin, David, “Identity in a Divided Province: The Folklorists of Lorraine, 1860–1960,” French Historical Studies 24, no. 4 (Fall 2000): 642Google Scholar; Cohen, Symbolic Construction of Community, 99.

133 Griffin, Emma, “Popular Culture in Industrializing England,” Historical Journal 45, no. 3 (September 2002): 628.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

134 Seal, “Tradition and Agrarian Protest,” 163.

135 Young, “George Walker's ‘Costume of Yorkshire,’” 414; Epstein, Radical Expression, 96.