Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-04T19:50:37.028Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

“Perambulating fever nests of our London streets”: Cabs, Omnibuses, Ambulances, and Other “Pest-Vehicles” in the Victorian Metropolis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 December 2012

Matthew L. Newsom Kerr
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of British Studies , Volume 49 , Issue 2 , April 2010 , pp. 283 - 310
Copyright
Copyright © North American Conference of British Studies 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 “Malappropriation of Public Vehicles,” Lancet, 11 August 1860, 143.

2 Stallybrass, Peter and White, Allon, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (Ithaca, NY, 1986)Google Scholar; Nord, Deborah Epstein, Walking the Victorian Streets (Ithaca, NY, 1995)Google Scholar.

3 Divall, Colin and Bond, Winstan, eds., Suburbanizing the Masses (Burlington, VT, 2003)Google Scholar; Morris, R. J. and Rodger, Richard, eds., The Victorian City (London, 1993)Google Scholar; Thompson, F. M. L., ed., The Rise of Suburbia (Leicester, 1982)Google Scholar; Barker, T. C. and Robbins, Michael, A History of London Transport (London, 1963)Google Scholar.

4 Divall, Colin and Revill, George, “Cultures of Transport: Representation, Practice and Technology,” Journal of Transport History 26, no. 1 (March 2005): 99–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

5 Walkowitz, Judith R., City of Dreadful Delight (Chicago, 1992)Google Scholar; Nead, Lynda, Victorian Babylon (New Haven, CT, 2000)Google Scholar; Rappaport, Erika Diane, Shopping for Pleasure (Princeton, NJ, 2000)Google Scholar; Rendell, Jane, The Pursuit of Pleasure (New Brunswick, NJ, 2002)Google Scholar; Koven, Seth, Slumming (Princeton, NJ, 2004)Google Scholar.

6 Walsh, Margaret, “Gendering Transport History: Retrospect and Prospect,” Journal of Transport History 23, no. 1 (March 2002): 2–8Google Scholar; Parsons, Deborah L., Streetwalking the Metropolis (New York, 2000)Google Scholar.

7 Goffman, Erving, Behavior in Public Places (New York, 1963)Google Scholar; Simmel, Georg, The Sociology of Georg Simmel, ed. Wolff, Kurt H. (New York, 1950)Google Scholar; Harrington, Ralph, “On the Tracks of Trauma: Railway Spine Reconsidered,” Social History of Medicine 16, no. 2 (August 2003): 209–23Google Scholar; Schivelbusch, Wolfgang, The Railway Journey (New York, 1979)Google Scholar; Wrigley, Richard and Revill, George, eds., Pathologies of Travel (Atlanta, 2000)Google Scholar; Bailey, Peter, “Adventures in Space: Victorian Railway Erotics, or Taking Alienation for a Ride,” Journal of Victorian Culture 9, no. 1 (April 2004): 1–21.Google Scholar

8 Chadwick, Edwin, Circulation or Stagnation (London, 1889), 8–9Google Scholar; Trotter, David, Circulation (New York, 1988)Google Scholar; Daunton, Martin, ed., The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, vol. 3, 1840–1950 (New York, 2000), 1–13.Google Scholar

9 The foundational scholarship here is Ackerknecht, Erwin, “Anticontagionism between 1821 and 1867,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 22 (September–October, 1948): 562–93.Google Scholar For a survey of the more nuanced relationship between liberalism and antiquarantine positions, see Baldwin, Peter, Contagion and the State in Europe, 1830–1930 (New York, 2005)Google Scholar.

10 Nead, Victorian Babylon; Allen, Michelle, Cleansing the City (Athens, GA, 2008)Google Scholar.

11 Otter, Christopher, “Making Liberalism Durable: Vision and Civility in the Late Victorian City,” Social History 27, no. 1 (January 2002): 1–15Google Scholar, and “Cleansing and Clarifying: Technology and Perception in Nineteenth-Century London,” Journal of British Studies 43, no. 1 (January 2004): 40–64Google Scholar; Joyce, Patrick, The Rule of Freedom (New York, 2003)Google Scholar; Gilbert, Pamela, The Citizen's Body (Columbus, OH, 2007)Google Scholar.

12 Defoe, Daniel, A Journal of the Plague Year (New York, 1960), 51Google Scholar; The Diary of Samuel Pepys (1825; repr., Berkeley, CA, 1970–83). See, even earlier, Dekker's, Thomas aptly titled The Seuen Deadly Sinnes of London, drawn in seuen seuerall Coaches, Through the seuen seuerall Gates of the Citie; Bringing the Plague with them (London, 1606)Google Scholar.

13 Quoted in Moore, Henry Charles, Omnibuses and Cabs: Their Origin and History (London, 1902), 203.Google Scholar

14 Quoted in May, Trevor, Gondolas and Growlers (Phoenix Mill, UK, 1995), 9.Google Scholar See also Schlesinger, Max, Saunterings In and About London (London, 1853), 158Google Scholar; “Our Cabs,” The Centaur, 15 January 1881, 5.

15 Thrupp, G. A., The History of Coaches (London, 1877), 118.Google Scholar

16 May, Gondolas and Growlers, 36–47, 63–75.

17 Quoted in Moore, Omnibuses and Cabs, 200.

18 Trollope, Anthony, The Way We Live Now (London, 1875), 3Google Scholar; Dickens, Charles, Our Mutual Friend (1864–65; repr., New York, 1967), 257.Google Scholar See also Tristan, Flora, London Journal, 1840 (Charlestown, MA, 1980), 151Google Scholar; John Armstrong, “From Shillibeer to Buchanan: Transport and the Urban Environment,” in Daunton, Cambridge Urban History of Britain, 229–31.

19 Cunningham, Peter, London in 1856 (London, 1856), xxxi–xxxiiGoogle Scholar; Inwood, Stephen, City of Cities (London, 2005), 225.Google Scholar

20 Ritchie, J. Ewing, About London (London, 1860), 191–92.Google Scholar The saucy reputation of cabmen appears to have been established very early. Jenner, Mark, “Circulation and Disorder: London Streets and Hackney Coaches, c. 1640–1740,” in The Streets of London, ed. Hitchcock, Tim and Shore, Heather (Chicago, 2003), 40–53.Google Scholar

21 Dickens, Charles, “The Last Cab Driver, and the First Omnibus Cad,” in Sketches by Boz (1836; repr., Columbus, OH, 1994), 170–81Google Scholar; [John Hollingshead], “Cab!” All the Year Round, 25 February 1860, 414–16; Greenwood, James, “With a Night Cabman,” in The Wilds of London (London, 1874), 107–16Google Scholar; Mayhew, Henry, London Labour and the London Poor (New York, 1985), 363–68.Google Scholar

22 Letter from “M.D.,” The Times, 30 January 1863, 8.

23 Dickens, “Omnibuses,” in Sketches by Boz, 166–70. On the omnibus, see Lee, Charles E., The Horse Bus as a Vehicle (London, 1974)Google Scholar.

24 Casteras, Susan P., “Seeing the Unseen: Pictorial Problematics and Victorian Images of Class, Poverty, and Urban Life,” in Victorian Literature and the Victorian Visual Imagination, ed. Christ, Carol T. and Jordan, John O. (Berkeley, CA, 1995), 264–87.Google Scholar For all his praise of the omnibus's kaleidoscopic potential, Dickens observed that inevitably “conversation is now entirely dropped; each person gazes vacantly through the window in front of him, and everybody thinks that his opposite neighbor is staring at him” (“Omnibuses,” 141).

25 Sala, George, Twice Round the Clock (London, 1859), 219–22.Google Scholar

26 Rev. J. Kirkman, Hampstead and Highgate Express, 13 January 1877, 3. This last piece of advice is helpful for demonstrating the variously conflicting theories of disease transmission that were recruited to sustain the fear of contaminated vehicles. Semantically muddled debates between “contagionists” and “miasmists” that rankled the medical profession in the first half of the century were largely muted by the 1860s and had finally conjoined with the popular impression of epidemics’ vague multicausality. Either theory could be called upon (and, confusedly, often simultaneously) to support the indiscriminate danger of public conveyances. A cab that received the noxious discharges of a fever patient (or even a very filthy person) could, according to the miasmatic theory of “infection,” incubate the decomposition of animal matter into a concentrated cloud of disease-breeding foulness and stink—in the same way that close and unventilated apartments constituted poison chambers germinating fevers of various kinds in their inmates. “Contagion” properly understood would occur only when specific materies morbi passed from the sick to the healthy and resulted in the same species of illness (as with smallpox, practically all agreed). In practice, physicians and the public alike used both terms interchangeably—and, hence, the interesting notion here that tobacco smoke would counteract the atmosphere of the smallpox-impregnated traveling compartment. Moreover—and perhaps equally important in the minds of many—either method of propagating disease was similarly associated with moral contamination, whether a traveler emerged from a hired vehicle carrying the seeds of a previous occupant's disease or the taint of their foul smell. This last point was expressed in “London Cabs,” The Times, 10 December 1859, 4.

27 Turvey, Ralph, “Street Mud, Dust and Noise,” London Journal 21, no. 2 (December 1996), 131–48Google Scholar; Winter, James, London's Teeming Streets, 1830–1914 (New York, 1993), 34–49.Google Scholar

28 Bailey, Peter, “Taking Alienation for a Ride”; Deborah Brunton, “Evil Necessaries and Abominable Erections: Public Conveniences and Private Interests in the Scottish City, 1830–1870,” Social History of Medicine 18, no. 2 (August 2005): 187–202.Google Scholar For variants on the theme of contamination through circulation, see Roberts, Lewis, “Disciplining the Disinfecting Working-Class Readers in the Victorian Public Library,” Victorian Literature and Culture 26, no. 1 (March 1998): 105–32.Google Scholar

29 Royal Free Hospital Archives Centre, Hampstead, LFH/1/C/4, London Fever Hospital Committee Minutes (LFHCM), 27 June 1851, 30 May 1851.

30 “On the Present Mode of Conveying Small-Pox and Fever Patients to the Hospitals in Public Vehicles,” Medical Times and Gazette, 31 July 1852, 112–13; Grainger, R. D., Report to General Board of Health on the Present Mode of Conveying Small-Pox and Fever Patients to the Hospitals in Public Vehicles (London, 1852)Google Scholar.

31 “Fevers upon Wheels,” Punch, 19 January 1861, 31; The Fifty-Ninth Report of the London Fever Hospital, 1860 (London, 1861), 12–13.Google Scholar

32 Horace Jeaffreson, “London Fevers and London Cabs,” The Times, 5 March 1866, 10.

33 “Street Cabs,” The Times, 13 December 1859, 5.

34 “Small-Pox in the Metropolis,” Lancet, 18 April 1863, 448. The story is repeated in British Medical Journal, 20 May 1865, 516 (hereafter cited as BMJ); and “Hospital Carriages,” The Times, 16 May 1865, 6.

35 Ritchie, About London, 189–90. See also letter from “H. B. P.,” The Times, 19 January 1869, 9; Medical Times and Gazette, 31 July 1852, 113.

36 “A Sufferer from the Evil Complained of,” Lancet, 5 November 1864, 534; BMJ, 20 November 1858, 972.

37 Samuel Stretton, “Ambulance Conveyances in London,” BMJ, 30 July 1881, 187.

38 W. H. Cufaude, The Times, 20 November 1863, 10; Hubert A. Holden, The Times, 23 November, 1863, 10; The Times, 3 December 1868, 5; 4 December 1868, 7; 5 December 1868, 5; 23 December 1871, 6; 5 January 1872, 9; Lancet, 2 January 1875, 29. A lengthy exchange in 1868 had many writers wondering how they were to get sick relatives home except by rail. “How Scarlet Fever Spreads,” The Times, 14 April 1868, 5; 16 April 1868, 10; 17 April 1868, 10; 18 April 1868, 7; 20 April 1868, 5.

39 “Contagion on the Rail,” Punch, 6 August 1864, 53; Second Report of the Royal Sanitary Commission, Vol. III Minutes of Evidence (London, 1871)Google Scholar, questions 9390–93.

40 “Smallpox by Railway,” The Times, 2 July 1863, 14; “Smallpox by Train,” The Times, 6 July 1871, 11. See also The Times, 10 July 1871, 7; 5 January 1872, 9; “One Way of Getting Small-Pox and Fever,” Lancet, 10 March 1866, 266–67. For similar surprises on omnibuses: “Small-Pox in an Omnibus,” Medical Times and Gazette, 28 January 1871, 105.

41 The Echo, 7 February 1871, 2.

42 Daily Telegraph, 28 January 1871, 5. A brougham was a light, four-wheeled carriage for private use, not public hire.

43 “On the Present Mode of Conveying Small-Pox and Fever Patients to the Hospitals in Public Vehicles,” Medical Times and Gazette, 31 July 1852, 113.

44 Reprinted in “Small-Pox in Cabs,” BMJ, 19 January 1867, 71. See also “Conveyance of Fever Patients in Public Vehicles,” Medical Times and Gazette, 25 June 1853, 651.

45 Pall Mall Gazette, 27 February 1877, 4 (reprinted in BMJ, 10 March 1877, 313).

46 B. D. K., The Times, 22 January 1866, 12; Anstie, Francis Edmund, Notes on Epidemics (London, 1866), 38Google Scholar; “What is Wanted in Sanitary Legislation,” Lancet, 6 January 1866, 17.

47 Carroll, Patrick E., “Medical Police and the History of Public Health,” Medical History 46, no. 4 (October 2002): 461–94Google Scholar; Osborne, Thomas, “Security and Vitality: Drains, Liberalism and Power in the Nineteenth Century,” in Foucault and Political Reason, ed. Barry, Andrew, Osborne, Thomas, and Rose, Nikolas (Chicago, 1996), 99–121.Google Scholar

48 “Conveyance of Fever Patients in Public Vehicles,” Medical Times and Gazette, 25 June 1853, 652.

49 Medical Times and Gazette, 21 March 1863, 299; BMJ, 14 February 1863, 171; and “Diseases Prevention Act,” BMJ, 21 March 1863, 301.

50 29 & 30 Vict cap 90. Penalties and provisions dealing with public exposure were largely recodified in the 1875 Public Health Act, which also again encouraged local sanitary authorities to provide infectious ambulances. The 1890 Infectious Disease Prevention Act prohibited the use of cabs for transporting corpses of persons dying from infectious diseases. The 1891 Public Health (London) Act raised the maximum penalty for infectious persons entering public vehicles to £10.

51 Ayers, Gwendoline M., England's First State Hospitals and the Metropolitan Asylums Board, 1867–1930 (Berkeley, CA, 1971)Google Scholar; Kerr, Matthew Newsom, “Fevered Metropolis: Epidemic Disease and Isolation in Victorian London” (PhD thesis, University of Southern California, 2007)Google Scholar.

52 “Infectious Diseases and Public Conveyances,” BMJ, 4 April 1863, 350.

53 The hospitals were in Hampstead, Homerton, Stockwell, Fulham, and Deptford. An 1881 survey found that nearly 90 percent of MAB patients had never previously received parish relief and had technically become pauperized only to secure isolation. Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Inquire respecting Small-Pox and Fever Hospitals (RCSFH), Cmd. 3314 (London, 1882), 65.

54 “Small-Pox in London,” The Times, 16 October 1876, 7.

55 Pall Mall Gazette, 16 January 1871, 5; The Echo, 7 February 1871, 2.

56 North Londoner, 17 June 1871, 8; The Times, 7 June 1871, 11; 29 September 1871, 9; 6 February 1871, 11.

57 Daily Telegraph, 20 January 1871, 5.

58 Hampstead and Highgate Express 11 May 1872, 18 May 1872; The Times, 24 April 1871, 11; 3 May 1871, 11.

59 “Infected Patients in Public Conveyances,” BMJ, 5 September 1874, 310.

60 “A Fever Patient in a Public Conveyance,” Sanitary Record, 20 May, 1876, 353.

61 “Conveying Infectious Patient,” Sanitary Record, 5 February 1876, 96; “Conveying a Fever Patient in a Hansom Cab,” Sanitary Record, 19 February 1876, 134.

62 “Small-Pox and Cabs,” The Times, 27 December 1870, 9; 7 January 1871, 11; “Contagion and Conveyance,” The Times, 20 January 1871, 5; “Small-Pox and Red Tape,” Lancet, 13 April 1872, 515–16; 7 October 1871, 514.

63 The Times, 30 August 1871, 9; see also 14 May 1878, 4.

64 Other prosecutions for “exposure”: North Londoner, 2 July 1870, 7; The Times, 28 December 1870, 4; 7 January 1871, 11; 16 January 1871, 11; 20 January 1871, 5; 6 February 1871, 11; 2 March 1871, 11; 29 August 1872, 9; 12 September 1883, 4; “The Protection of the Public from Contagious Diseases,” Lancet, 30 January 1875, 174.

65 Daily Telegraph, 28 January 1871, 5.

66 Hart, Harold, “The Conveyance of Patients to and from Hospital, 1720–1850,” Medical History 22, no. 4 (October 1978): 397–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

67 Barkely, Katherine Traver, The Ambulance (Kiamesha Lake, NY, 1990)Google Scholar; Haller, John S., Farmcarts to Fords (Carbondale, IL, 1992).Google Scholar The difficulties and confusion implied in the term are expressed in “Ambulance,” Medical Times and Gazette, 11 February 1882, 158; Blyth, Alexander Wynter, A Dictionary of Hygiene and Public Health (London, 1876), 51–52.Google Scholar

68 At the very least, the supposition made by Haller that civilian ambulances originated chiefly from organized “social compassion” is clearly inadequate. Haller, John S., “The Beginnings of Urban Ambulance Service in the United States and England,” Journal of Emergency Medicine 8, no. 6 (November–December 1990): 755.Google Scholar See also Hutchinson, John F., “Civilian Ambulances and Lifesaving Societies: The European Experience, 1870–1914,” in Accidents in History, ed. Cooter, Roger and Luckin, Bill (Amsterdam, 1997), 158–78.Google Scholar

69 “Fever in Street Cabs,” Lancet, 22 December 1860, 621. On the act, see BMJ, 25 February 1860, 158; 23 June 1860, 485.

70 Return of Number of Carriages for Conveyance of Sick and Diseased Persons provided within Metropolitan Police District and City of London (House of Commons, 4 June 1863).

71 Edward Ballard, “Street Cabs and Infectious Diseases,” The Times, 2 February 1863, 6.

72 “Hospital Carriages,” The Times, 24 September 1864, 10; “Typhus and Smallpox,” The Times, 5 January 1866, 8; The Times, 5 March 1866, 10; Horace Jeaffreson, “Hospital Carriages,” The Times, 29 January 1867, 8; “Propagation of Disease by Public Vehicles,” The Times, 21 January 1869, 7; “Propagation of Disease by Public Vehicles,” BMJ, 30 January 1869, 103–4; “Ambulances,” Lancet, 23 January 1875, 138.

73 “Hospital Carriages for Fever Patients,” Illustrated London News, 23 February 1867, 190; “Hospital Carriages,” BMJ, 10 March 1866, 270.

74 “Hospital Carriages,” BMJ, 19 January 1867, 61; “One Way of Getting Small-Pox and Fever,” Lancet, 10 March 1866, 266–67.

75 “Small-Pox and Fever Carriages,” BMJ, 28 January 1871, 97.

76 “The Use of Cabs in Fever Cases,” The Times, 25 January 1869, 12; BMJ, 21 January 1871, 73.

77 Daily Telegraph, 13 February 1871, 5; “Fever and Smallpox,” The Times, 18 October 1881, 10.

78 “Diseases Prevention Act,” BMJ, 21 March 1863, 301; “Ambulances,” Lancet, 23 January 1875, 138.

79 “The Protection of the Public from Contagious Diseases,” Lancet, 30 January 1875, 174. See also House of Commons, Report, Select Committee on Hampstead Fever and Small-Pox Hospital: Minutes of Evidence (London, 1875), 52.Google Scholar

80 London Metropolitan Archives, MAB Minutes, 9 March 1878, 11:838–39 (hereafter cited as MAB Minutes).

81 RCSFH, 52. See also Pall Mall Gazette, 3 February 1871, 10; North Londoner, 12 August 1871, 7.

82 See MAB Minutes, 19 February 1881, 14:863–64; 26 November 1881, 15:749; 10 December 1881, 15:758–59; “Parish Ambulances,” The Times, 29 November 1881, 6; 13 December 1881, 10.

83 “Opening of the Stockwell Small-Pox Hospital,” South London Press, 4 February 1871, 6; 11 February 1871, 7; The Echo, 10 February 1871, 4.

84 “Conveyance of Smallpox Patients,” The Times, 13 February 1871, 12; 6 February 1871, 6; “The Small-Pox Hospital Case,” Medical Press and Circular, 16 March 1881, 229.

85 Hackney Guardian, 18 February 1871, 3. This was also the response of the St. Marylebone Guardians. The Times, 6 February 1871, 6.

86 N. S. Steinberg, Hampstead and Highgate Express, 5 January 1884, 3.

87 South London Press, 18 February 1871, 6; “Parish Ambulance,” Hackney Guardian, 18 February 1871, 3.

88 B. Meredyth Kitson, The Times, 30 May 1884, 7 (reprinted in Hackney and Kingsland Gazette, 2 June 1884, 3).

89 Report, Select Committee on Hampstead Fever and Small-Pox Hospital (London, 1875), 85.Google Scholar

90 MAB Minutes, 2 December 1876, 10:530–31; Hampstead and Highgate Express, 13 January 1877, 3.

91 Charles Walker, Hampstead and Highgate Express, 6 September 1884, 3.

92 Wood, Jane, Passion and Pathology in Victorian Fiction (New York, 2001)Google Scholar; Vrettos, Athena, Somatic Fictions (Stanford, CA, 1995)Google Scholar.

93 “Small-Pox Spread by Ambulance,” Sanitary Record, 15 July 1880, 16–17; MAB Minutes, 1 May 1880, 14:130; 19 March 1881, 14:924–26; 14 May 1881, 15:114; East London Observer, 2 June 1877, 7; Smallpox Ambulances,” The Times, 24 May 1877, 6; 25 July 1881, 11; Martin H. Wilkin, Hampstead and Highgate Express, 5 January 1884, 3.

94 Islington Gazette, 26 September 1876, 3; 29 September 1876, 2.

95 Quoted in Hardy, Anne, The Epidemic Streets (Oxford, 1993), 274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

96 Greenwood, The Wilds of London, 133–41, 158–72. For melodrama and street dynamics, see Judith R. Walkowitz, “Going Public: Shopping, Street Harassment, and Streetwalking in Late Victorian London,” Representations, no. 62 (Spring 1998): 1–30; Bailey, Peter, Popular Culture and Performance in the Victorian City (New York, 1998)Google Scholar; Nead, Victorian Babylon 149–215.

97 Plotz, John, The Crowd (Berkeley, CA, 2000)Google Scholar; Rudé, George, The Crowd in History (New York, 1964)Google Scholar.

98 Ambulance Committee Minute, 16 June 1890, London Metropolitan Archives, LMA/MAB/150; MAB Minutes, 14 June 1890, 24:217.

99 Bailey, Peter, Leisure and Class in Victorian England (London, 1978)Google Scholar.

100 The Times, 30 November 1878, 9; 29 January 1879, 3; 26 November 1879, 4; Lancet, 14 December 1878, 861.

101 RCSFH, 131–32.

102 Stallybrass and White, Politics and Poetics of Transgression; Koven, Slumming; Allen, Cleansing the City.

103 Transactions of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain 3 (1881–82): 57–58.

104 RCSFH, xvi–xxv, xx.

105 Transactions of the Society of Medical Officers of Health, Session 1884–85 (London, 1885), 80.Google Scholar

106 MAB Minutes, 21 April 1888, 22:80; 25 May 1891, 25:75. In 1930, when it was folded into the London County Council, the MAB possessed 107 ambulances, compared to the LCC's 21.

107 “Safety Fever Ambulance,” Lancet, 23 August 1884, 330; “Safety Fever Ambulance Vans,” Camden and Kentish Towns Gazette, 23 August 1884, 3.

108 “How the Asylums Board Battles against Small-Pox,” London Argus, 13 September 1901, 1. See also Nursing Record and Hospital World, 7 December 1901, 462.

109 The Metropolitan Asylums Board and Its Work (London, 1900), 18.Google ScholarPubMed

110 “The Work of the Metropolitan Asylums Board,” Hospital, 18 January 1902, 277.

111 BMJ, 11 May 1867, 553; “The Fever Cart,” Nursing Mirror and Midwives Journal, 7 April 1928, 8. See also Guy, John R., “The Shadow of the Fever Van,” in A Pox on the Provinces (Claverton Down, Bath, 1990), 39–49.Google Scholar

112 Roger Cooter makes this observation about the street-accident ambulance services that started in the late 1880s: “The Moment of the Accident: Culture, Militarism and Modernity in Late-Victorian Britain,” in their Accidents in History, 107–46. On “risk society,” see Castel, Robert, “From Dangerousness to Risk,” in The Foucault Effect, ed. Burchell, Graham, Jones, Colin, and Miller, Peter (Chicago, 1991), 281–98.Google Scholar

113 Flint, Kate, The Victorians and the Visual Imagination (New York, 2000), 20, 25.Google Scholar

114 Stafford, Barbara Maria, Body Criticism (Cambridge, MA, 1991)Google Scholar.