Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T19:36:43.474Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Revising the Malthusian Narrative: The Comparative Study of Population Dynamics in Late Imperial China

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 March 2010

William Lavely  and
R. Bin Wong
Get access

Extract

Ever since malthus, it has been conventional to cast the Chinese and European preindustrial demographic systems as opposing archetypes—Europe as a model of demographic restraint, China as demographic profligate. Europe's moderate population growth, fertility control keyed to economic conditions, and favorable living standards are contrasted with China's rapid growth, periodic mortality crises, and precarious balance of population and resources. Although there is some variation in approaches and vocabularies reflecting disciplinary divisions, and recognition of the substantial variability of institutions within Europe and China, this stylized contrast continues to flourish in the demographic and historical literatures. Its persistence is important because Malthusian dynamics underlie a popular and persuasive set of explanations for the divergent paths of Chinese and European economies and societies in the industrial era. In this article we challenge this conventional dichotomy and its empirical underpinnings.

Type
Articles
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 57 , Issue 3 , August 1998 , pp. 714 - 748
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 1998

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

List of References

Anderson, E. N. 1988. The Food of China. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Barclay, George W. 1954. Colonial Development and Population in Taiwan. Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press.Google Scholar
Barclay, George, Coale, Ansley J., Stoto, Michael A., and Trussell, T. James. 1976. “A Reassessment of the Demography of Traditional China.” Population Index 42: 606–35.Google Scholar
Blum, Alain, and Troitskaja, Irina 1996. “La Mortality en Russie aux XVIIe et XIXe siècles: estimations locale à partir des Revizii.” Population 51(2):303–28.Google Scholar
Bohr, Paul Richard. 1972. Famine in China and the Missionary: Timothy Richard as Relief Administrator and Advocate of National Reform. Cambridge: Harvard East Asian Monographs.Google Scholar
Bongaarts, John, and Cain, Mead 1980. Demographic Responses to Famine. New York: Population Council.Google Scholar
Boserup, Esther. 1965. The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure. Chicago: Aldine.Google Scholar
Boserup, Esther. 1981. Population and Technological Change: A Study of Long-Term Trends. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Boserup, Esther. 1983. “The Impact of Scarcity and Plenty on Development.” In Hunger and History, edited by Rotberg, Robert I. and Rabb, Theodore K.. Cambridge: Cambridge University.Google Scholar
Brandt, Loren. 1989. Commercialization and Agricultural Development: Central and Eastern China, 1870–1937. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Brass, William. 1987. “Mortality in China over the Past Fifty years: Indirect Estimates from the 1982 Census.” In A Census of One Billion People, edited by Li Chengrui. Population Census Office, State Statistical Bureau & Department of Population Statistics, State Statistical Bureau, People’s Republic of China).Google Scholar
Bray, Francesca. 1997. Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Brook, Timothy. 1998. The Confusions of Pleasure. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Caldwell, John, Bracher, Michael, Santow, Gigi and Caldwell, Pat 1986. “Population Trends in China—A Perspective Provided by the 1982 Census.” In A Census of One Billion People, edited by Li Chengrui. Population Census Office, State Statistical Bureau & Department of Population Statistics, State Statistical Bureau, People’s Republic of China.Google Scholar
Carmichael, Ann G. 1985. “Infection, Hidden Hunger, and History.” In Hunger and History, edited by Rotberg, Robert I. and Rabb, Theodore K.. Cambridge: Cambridge University.Google Scholar
Cartier, Michel. 1995. “Croissance démographique et répartition de la population chinoise: 1880–1990.” Espace, Populations, Sociétés 2: 209–17.Google Scholar
Kang, Chao 1986. Man and Land in Chinese History. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Charbonneau, Hubert, and La Rose, Andre, eds. 1979. The Great Mortalities: Methodological Studies of Demographic Crises in the Past. Liege: Ordina Editions.Google Scholar
Liangxue, Chen and Rongchu, Zou 1988. “Qingdai qianqi kemin yiken yu Shaannan de kaifa” (Early and mid-Qing migration and land clearance and the development of southern Shaanxi). Shaanxi shida xuebao 1: 82–89.Google Scholar
Chiao, C. M., Thompson, Warren S., and Chen, D. T.. 1938. An Experiment in the Registration of Vital Statistics in China. Oxford, Ohio: Scripps Foundation for Research in Population Problems.Google Scholar
China, State Statistical Bureau. 1986. Zhonghua renmin gongheguo 1953 nian renkou diaocha tongji huibian (People’s Republic of China 1953 population census statistical compendium).Google Scholar
Chu, C. Y. Cyrus, and Lee, Ronald D.. 1994. “Famine, Revolt, and the Dynastic Cycle: Population Dynamics in Historic China.” Journal of Population Economics 7: 351–78.Google Scholar
Coale, Ansley J. 1985. “Fertility in Rural China: A Reconfirmation of the Barclay Reassessment.” In Family and Population in East Asian History, edited by Hanley, Susan B. and Wolf, Arthur P.. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Coale, Ansley J. 1986. “The Decline of Fertility in Europe since the Eighteenth Century As a Chapter in Demographic History.” In The Decline of Fertility in Europe, edited by Coale, Ansley J. and Watkins, Susan Cotts. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Coale, Ansley J., and Demeny, Paul 1966. Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Populations. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Coale, Ansley J., and Treadway, Roy 1986. “A Summary of the Changing Distribution of Overall Fertility, Marital Fertility, and the Proportion Married in the Provinces of Europe.” In The Decline of Fertility in Europe, edited by Coale, Ansley J. and Watkins, Susan Cotts. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Cornell, Laurel L. 1996. “Infanticide in Early Modern Japan? Demography, Culture, and Population Growth.” The Journal of Asian Studies 55(1):22–50.Google Scholar
De Vries, Jan. 1984. European Urbanization 1500–1800. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Dickemann, Mildred. 1979. “Female Infanticide, Reproductive Strategies, and Social Stratification: A Preliminary Model.” In Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective, edited by Chagnon, N. A. and Irons, William. North Scituate, Mass.: Duxbury.Google Scholar
Doolittle, Justus. 1865. Social Life of the Chinese. Vol. 2. New York: Harper & Brothers.Google Scholar
Dublin, Louis I., and Lotka, Alfred J.. 1925. “On the True Rate of Natural Increase.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 20(151):305–39Google Scholar
Dunstan, Helen. 1975. “The Late Ming Epidemics: A Preliminary Survey.” Ch’ing-Shih wen-t’i 3(3): 1–59.Google Scholar
Durand, Johnd. 1960. “The Population Statistics of China, A.D. 2–1953.” Population Studies 13(3):209–56.Google Scholar
Elvin, Mark. 1973. The Pattern of the Chinese Past. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Xing, Fang 1979. “Qingdai Shaanxi diqu ziben zhuyi mengya xingshuai tiaojian de tansuo” (An exploration of the conditions for the rise and fall of capitalist sprouts in Shaanxi). Jingji yanjiu 12: 59–86.Google Scholar
Xing, Fang 1996. “Qingdai Jiangnan nongmin de xiaofei” (Qing period Jiangnan peasant consumption). Zhongguo jingjishi yanjiu 3: 91–98.Google Scholar
Hsiao-T’Ung, Fei 1939. Peasant Life in China. New York: E. P. Dutton.Google Scholar
Erkang, Feng 1986. “Qingdai de hunyin zhidu yu funu de shehui diwei shulun” (The Qing marriage system and women’s social status). Qingshi Yanjiu 5:305–43.Google Scholar
Flinn, Michael W. 1981. The European Demographic System, 1500–1820. Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Floud, Roderick, Wachter, Kennet H, and Gregory, Annabel. 1990. Height, Health, and History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fogel, Robert. 1991. “The Conquest of High Mortality and Hunger in Europe and America: Timing and Mechanisms.” In Favorites of Fortune: Technology, Growth and Economic Development Since the Industrial Revolution, edited by Higonnet, Patrice, Landes, David S. and Rosovsky, Henry. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Galloway, Patrick R. 1986. “Long-term Fluctuations in Climate and Population in the Preindustrial Era.” Population and Development Review 12(1):1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galloway, Patrick R. 1994. “A Reconstruction of the Population of Northern Italy from 1650 to 1881 Using Annual Inverse Projection with Comparisons to England, France, and Sweden.” EuropeanJournal of Population 10: 223–74.Google Scholar
Galloway, Patrick, and Lee, Ronald D.. 1985. Some Possibilities for the Analysis of Aggregate Historical Demographic Data from China. Unpublished manuscript presented at the Workshop on Qing Population History, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, August 26–20.Google Scholar
Jianxiong, Ge. 1991. Zhongguo renkou fazhan shi (A history of China’s population development). Fuzhou: Fujian renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Gernet, Jacques [1972] 1985. Le Monde Chinois. Paris: Armand Colin. Translated by J. R. Foster. A History of Chinese Civilization. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Goody, Jack. 1990. The Oriental, the Ancient, and the Primitive: Systems of Marriage and the Family in the Pre-industrial Societies of Eurasia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hanley, Susan B., and Yamamura, Kozo 1977. Economic Development and Demographic Change in Preindustrial Japan, 1600–1868. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hanley, Susan B. 1987. “Urban Sanitation in Pre-Industrial Japan.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18(1): 1–16.Google Scholar
Harrell, Stevan. 1987. “On the Holes in Chinese Genealogies.” Late Imperial China 8(2): 53–79.Google Scholar
Harrell, Stevan. 1995. Introduction to Chinese Historical Microdemography, edited by Harrell, Stevan. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
He Changling, ed. [1821] 1963. Huangchao jingshi wenbian (Essays of our august dynasty on statecraft). Reprint, Taipei: Guofeng chubanshe.Google Scholar
Henry, Louis. 1956. Anciennes Familles Genevoises. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.Google Scholar
Henry, Louis. 1961. “Some Data on Natural Fertility.” Eugenics Quarterly 8: 81–91.Google Scholar
Ho, Ping-Ti. 1959. Studies on the Population of China, 1368–1953. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hollingsworth, T. H. 1965. “A Demographic Study of the British Ducal Families.” In Population in History, edited by Glass, D. V. and Eversley, D. E. C.. London: Edward Arnold Ltd.Google Scholar
Hu, Hsien Chin. 1948. The Common Descent Group in China and Its Functions. New York: Viking Fund.Google Scholar
Huang, Philip. 1985. The Peasant Economy and Social Change in North China. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Huang, Philip. 1990. The Peasant Family and Rural Development in the Yangzi Delta, 1350–1988. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Jones, Susan Mann, and Kuhn, Philip A.. 1978. “Dynastic Decline and the Roots of Rebellion.” In Vol. 10, Cambridge History of China, Part 1, edited by Fairbank, John K.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kertzer, David I. 1993. Sacrificedfor Honor. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Knodel, John. 1988. Demographic Behavior in the Past. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Knodel, John, and Van De Walle, Etienne 1986. “Lessons from the Past: Policy Implications of Historical Fertility Studies.” In The Decline of Fertility in Europe, edited by Coale, Ansley J. and Watkins, Susan Cotts. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Kuhn, Philip. 1978. “The Taiping Rebellion.” In Vol. 10, Cambridge History of China, Part 1, edited by Fairbank, John K.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Zhongwen, Lai. 1994. “1840 nian hou Qing Zongshi siwanglu xiafeng zhi zhenwei” (The completeness of death registration of Imperial Lineage members after 1840). In Qingdai Huangzu renkou xingwei he shehui huanjing, edited by Zhongqing, Li (James Lee) and Songyi, Guo. Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe.Google Scholar
Lavely, William. 1990. “Juvenile Sex Ratios in East-Central China, 1930.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of Asian Studies on the Pacific Coast (ASPAC), Stanford University, 29 June-1 July.Google Scholar
Lavely, William, and Bin Wong, R. 1992. “Family Division and Mobility in North China.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 34(3): 439–63.Google Scholar
Lee, Bernice J. 1981. “Female Infanticide in China.” In Women in China: Current Directions in Historical Scholarship, edited by Guisso, Richard W. and Johannesen, Stanley. Youngstown, N.Y.: Philo Press.Google Scholar
Lee, James, and Campbell, Cameron 1997. Fate and Fortune in Rural China: Social Organization and Population Behavior in Liaoning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lee, James, Campbell, Cameron and Anthony, Lawrence 1995. “A Century of Mortality in Rural Liaoning, 1774–1873.” In Chinese Historical Microdemography, edited by Harrell, Stevan. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Lee, James, and Feng, Wang Forthcoming. Malthusian Mythology and Chinese Reality: the Population history of one-quarter of humanity, 1700–2000. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, James, and Feng, Wang and Campbell, Cameron 1994. “Infant and Child Mortality among the Qing Nobility: Implications for Two Types of Positive Check.” Population Studies 48(3): 395–411.Google Scholar
Lee, Ronald Demos. 1986. “Malthus and Boserup: A Dynamic Synthesis.” In The State of Population Theory, edited by Coleman, David, and Schofield, RogerOxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Leroy Ladurie, Emmanuel. 1971. Times of Feast, Times of Famine: A History of Climate since the year 1000. Translated by Bray, Barbara. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Bozhong, Li. 1994. “Kongzhi zengchang, yi bao fuyu–Qingdai qianzhongqi Jiangnan de renkou xingwei” (Controlling growth to protect wealth—population behavior in Jiangnan during the early and mid Qing period). Xin Shixue 5(3): 25–70.Google Scholar
Li Bozhong. Forthcoming. Translated by R. Bin Wong. Agricultural Development in Jiangnan, 1620–1850. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Li, Lillian. 1991. “Life and Death in a Chinese Famine: Infanticide as a Demographic Consequence of the 1935 Yellow River Flood.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 33(3):466–511.Google Scholar
Liu, K. C, and Smith, Richard J.. 1980. “The Military Challenge: The Northwest and the Coast.” In Vol. 11, Cambridge History of China, Part 2. Edited by Fairbank, John K. and Liu, K. C.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Liu, Paul K. C, and Hwang, Kuo-Shu 1977. “Population Change and Economic Development in Mainland China since 1400.” Reprinted from Conference on Modern Chinese Economic History, The Institute of Economics, Academia Sinica.Google Scholar
Liu, Ts’ui-Jung. 1985. “The Demography of Two Chinese Clans in Hsiao-shan, Chekiang, 1650–1850.” In Family and Population in East Asian History, edited by Hanley, Susan B. and Wolf, Arthur P.. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Liu, Ts’ui-Jung. 1992. “Lineage Population and Socio-economic Changes in the Ming-Ch’ing Periods.” The Institute of Economics, Academia Sinica, Economic Studies Series. Nankang, Taipei.Google Scholar
Liu, Ts’ui-Jung. 1995. “A Comparison of Lineage Populations in South China, ca. 1300–1900.” In Chinese Historical Microdemography, edited by Harrell, Stevan. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Livi-Bacci, Massimo. 1985. “The Nutrition-Mortality Link in Past Times: A Comment.” In Hunger and History, edited by Rotberg, Robert I. and Rabb, Theodore K.. Cambridge: Cambridge University.Google Scholar
Livi-Bacci, Massimo. 1991. Translated by Croft-Murray, Tania. Population and Nutrition: An Essay on European Demographic History. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Livi-Bacci, Massimo. 1992. Translated by Ipsen, Carl. A Concise History of World Population. Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Macfarlane, Alan. 1997. The Savage Wars of Peace. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Malthus, Thomas Robert. [1798] 1960. An Essay on the Principle of Population. In On Population: Thomas Robert Malthus, edited by Himmelfarb, Gertrude. New York: The Modern Library.Google Scholar
Mason, Karen Oppenheim. 1997. “Explaining Fertility Transitions.” Demography 34(4):443–54.Google Scholar
Mcevedy, Colin, and Jones, Richard 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Middlesex: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Mckeown, Thomas, and Record, R. G. 1962. “Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century.” Population Studies 16(2): 94–122.Google Scholar
Yuxin, Peng 1990. Qingdai tudi kaiken shi (A history of Qing dynasty land clearance). Beijing: Nongye chubanshe.Google Scholar
Perkins, Dwight H. 1969. Agricultural Development in China 1368–1968. Chicago: Aldine.Google Scholar
Perry, Elizabeth. 1980. Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Pomeranz, Kenneth. 1993. The Making of a Hinterland: State, society, and economy in inland North China, 1853–1937. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Pomeranz, Kenneth. 1997. “Rethinking 18th Century China: A High Standard of Living and its Implications.” Paper read at the annual meeting of the Economic History Association, New Brunswick, N.J., 12–14 September.Google Scholar
Pomeranz, Kenneth. Forthcoming. A New World of Growth: Markets, Ecology, Coercion, and Industrialization in Global Perspective. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Perdue, Peter. 1987. Exhausting the Earth: State and Peasant in Hunan, 1500–1850. Cambridge: Harvard University Council on East Asian Studies.Google Scholar
Rawski, Thomas. 1989. Economic Growth in Prewar China. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Scrimshaw, Nevin S. 1985. “Functional Consequences of Malnutrition for Human Populations: A Comment.” In Hunger and History, edited by Rotberg, Robert I. and Rabb, Theodore K.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Seifert, Harry E. 1935. Life Tables for Chinese Farmers. Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 13(3):223–36.Google Scholar
Shih, Vincent. 1967. The Taiping Ideology: Its Sources, Interpretations, and Influences Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Shorter, Edward. 1975. The Making of the Modern Family. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Simon, Julian. 1985. “The Effects of Population on Nutrition and Economic Weil-Being.” In Hunger and History, edited by Rotberg, Robert I. and Rabb, Theodore K.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Skinner, G. William. 1976. “Mobility Strategies in Late Imperial China: A Regional Systems Analysis.” In Regional Systems, Vol. 1., edited by Smith, Carol A.. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Skinner, G. William. 1977. “Regional Urbanization in Nineteenth Century China. In The City in Late Imperial China, edited by Skinner, G. William. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Skinner, G. William. 1985. “Presidential Address: The Structure of Chinese History.” TheJournal of Asian Studies 44(2):271–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skinner, G. William. 1987. “Sichuan’s Population in the Nineteenth Century: Lessons from Disaggregated Data.” Late Imperial China 8(1):1–79.Google Scholar
Skinner, G. William. 1989. “Infanticide as Family Planning in Tokugawa Japan.” Paper presented at the 41st Annual Meeting of the Association for Asian Studies, Washington, D. C, 17–19 March.Google Scholar
Skinner, G. William. 1997. “Family Systems and Economic Processes.” In Anthropological Demography: Toward a New Synthesis, edited by Kertzer, David I. and Fricke, Tom. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Adam. 1937. The Wealth of Nations. Random House.Google Scholar
Smith, Thomas, and Eng, Robert 1977. “Fertility and Infanticide.” In Nakahara, edited by Smith, Thomas. Stanford: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stockard, Janice E. 1989. Daughters of the Canton Delta. Marriage Patterns and Economic Strategies in South China, 1860–1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Taeuber, Irene B., and Wang, Nai-Chi 1960. “Population Reports in the Qing Dynasty.” Journal of Asian Studies 19(4):403–17.Google Scholar
Taylor, Carl E. 1985. “Synergy among Mass Infections, Famines, and Poverty.” In Hunger and History, edited by Rotberg, Robert I. and Rabb, Theodore K.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Telford, Ted A. 1990. “Patching the Holes in Chinese Genealogies: Mortality in the Lineage Population of Tongcheng County, 1300–1800.” Late Imperial China 11(2): 116–36.Google Scholar
Ju-K’ang, T’ien. 1988. Male Anxiety and Female Chastity: A Comparative Study of Chinese Ethical Values in Ming-Ch’ing Times. Monographies du T’oung Pao. Vol. 14. Leiden: E. J. Brill.Google Scholar
Tong, James. 1991. Disorder Under Heaven: Collective Violence in the Ming Dynasty Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Topley, Marjorie. 1975. “Marriage Resistance in Rural Kwangtung.” In Women in Chinese Society, edited by Wolf, Margery, Witke, and RoxaneStanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Waltner, Ann. 1995. “Infanticide and Dowry in Ming and Early Qing China.” In Chinese Views of Childhood, edited by Kinney, Anne Behnke. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Feng, Wang, Lee, Jame S, and Campbell, Cameron. 1995. “Marital Fertility Control among the Qing Nobility: Implications for Two Types of Preventive Check.” Population Studies 49(3):383–400.Google Scholar
Watkins, Susan Cotts, and Menken, Jane 1985. “Famines in Historical Perspective.” Population and Development Review 11(4):647–76.Google Scholar
Watkins, Susan Cotts, and van de Walle, Etienne 1983. “Nutrition, Mortality, and Population Size: Malthus’ Court of Last Resort.” In Hunger and History, edited by Rotberg, Robert I. and Rabb, Theodore K.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Weiss, Kenneth M. 1972. “A General Measure of Human Population Growth Regulation.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 37(3):337–44.Google Scholar
Will, Pierre-Etienne. 1985. “State Intervention in the Administration of a Hydraulic Infrastructure: The Example of Hubei Province in Late Imperial Times.” In The Scope of State Power in China, edited by Stuart Schram. School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, and Chinese University Press of the Chinese University of Hong Kong.Google Scholar
Will, Pierre-Etienne, and Bin Wong, R. 1991. Nourish the People: The State Civilian Granary System in China, 1650–1850. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies.Google Scholar
Wolf, Arthur. 1985. “Fertility in Prerevolutionary Rural China.” In Family and Population in East Asian History, edited by Hanley, Susan B. and Wolf, Arthur P.. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Wolf, Arthur, and Huang, Chieh-Shan 1980. Marriage and Adoption in China, 1845–1945. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Wolf, Arthur, and Hanley, Susan 1985. Introduction to Family and Population in East Asian History, edited by Hanley, Susan B. and Wolf, Arthur P.. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Wong, R. Bin. 1997. China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Wrigley, E. A., and Schofield, R. S. 1981. The Population History of England 1541–1871: A Reconstitution. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Zhenghong, Xiao 1988. “Qingdai Shaannan zhongzhiye de shengshuai ji qi yuanyin” (The reasons for the rise and fall of Qing dynasty southern Shaanxi agriculture). Zhongguo nongshi 1988(4):69–84.Google Scholar
I-Chin, Yuan 1931. “Life Tables for a Southern Chinese Family from 1365 to 1849.” Human Biology 3(2):157–79.Google Scholar
Zuliang, Yuan 1994. Zhongguo gudai renkou shi zhuanti yanjiu (Studies of special topics on China’s historical population). Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou guji chubanshe.Google Scholar
Wenlin, Zhao and Shujun, Xie 1988. Zhongguo renkou shi (History of Chinese population). Beijing: Renmin chubanshe.Google Scholar
Zhongwei, Zhao 1997. “Deliberate Birth Control under a High Fertility Regime: Reproductive Behavior in China before 1970.” Population and Development Review 23(4):729–68.Google Scholar
Linong, Zhou 1993. “Effects of Government Intervention on Population Growth in Imperial China.” Journal of Family History 18(3): 213–30.Google Scholar