Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-gb8f7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T13:55:28.527Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Intimate Desires: Dalit Women and Religious Conversions in Colonial India

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 July 2014

Charu Gupta
Get access

Abstract

Religious conversions by Dalits in colonial India have largely been examined as mass movements to Christianity, with an implicit focus on men. However, why did Dalit women convert? Were they just guided by their men, family, and community? This paper explores the interrelationship between caste and gender in Dalit conversions afresh through the use of popular print culture, vernacular missionary literature, writings of Hindu publicists and caste ideologues, cartoons, and police reports from colonial north India. It particularly looks at the two sites of clothing and romance to mark representations of mass and individual conversions to Christianity and Islam. Through them, it reads conversions by Dalit women as acts that embodied a language of intimate rights, and were accounts of resistant materialities. These simultaneously produced deep anxieties and everyday violence among ideologues of the Arya Samaj and other such groups, where there was both an erasure and a representational heightening of Dalit female desire. However, they also provide one with avenues to recover in part Dalit women's aspirations in this period.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 73 , Issue 3 , August 2014 , pp. 661 - 687
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

List of References

Abhyudaya . 1925a. “Achhut aur Musalman” [Untouchables and Muslims]. July 18, 2.Google Scholar
Abhyudaya . 1925b. “Etah Zilla ke 400 Chamar” [400 Chamarsof Etah District]. August 22, 5.Google Scholar
Abhyudaya . 1925c. “Samay ki maang” [Call of the times]. October 31, 3.Google Scholar
Abhyudaya . 1926a. “Dalitoddhar” [Dalit upliftment]. March 13, 1–2.Google Scholar
Abhyudaya . 1926b. “Achhut dasha darpan” [Mirror of condition of untouchable]. March 13, 9.Google Scholar
Allison, W. L., ed. 1969. One Hundred Years of Christian Work of the North India Mission of the Presbyterian Church, USA. Mysore: Wesley Press and Publishing House.Google Scholar
Alter, James P. 1986. In the Doab and Rohilkhand: North Indian Christianity, 1815–1915. Revised and completed by John Alter. Delhi: ISPCK.Google Scholar
Bandhusamaj. 1927. Hinduon ki tez talwar [Sharp sword of Hindus]. Kanpur: Arya Samaj.Google Scholar
Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar. 2004. Caste, Culture and Hegemony: Social Domination in Colonial Bengal. Delhi: Sage.Google Scholar
Bannerji, Himani. 2001. Inventing Subjects. Delhi: Tulika.Google Scholar
Banprasthi, Premanand. 1927. Musalmani gorakh dhandha [Frauds of Muslims]. Awadh: Hindu Dharm Rakshak.Google Scholar
Barnes, Ruth, and Eicher, Joanne Bubolz, eds. 1992. Dress and Gender: Making and Meaning in Cultural Contexts. Oxford: Berg.Google Scholar
Basu, Monmayee. 2001. Marriage and Hindu Law: Sacrament to Contract. Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bauman, Chad M. 2008. Christian Identity and Dalit Religion in Hindu India, 1868–1947. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing.Google Scholar
Bayly, Christopher. 1986. “The Origins of Swadeshi (Home Industry): Cloth and Indian Society, 1700–1930.” In The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, ed. Appadurai, Arjun, 285–322. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayly, Susan. 1999. Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bean, Susan. 1989. “Gandhi and Khadi, the Fabric of Indian Independence.” In Cloth and Human Experience, eds. Weiner, Annette B. and Schneider, Jane, 355–76. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar
Blunt, E. A. H. 1931. The Caste System of Northern India: With Special Reference to UP. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Briggs, G. W. 1920. The Chamars. Calcutta: Association Press.Google Scholar
Brouwer, Ruth Compton. 1990. New Women for God: Canadian Presbyterian Women and India Missions, 1876–1914. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Burton, Antoinette. 1994. Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women and Imperial Culture, 1865–1915. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Campbell, Mary J. 1918. The Power House at Pathankot: What Some Girls of India Wrought by Prayer. Lucknow: Women's Christian Temperance Union of India.Google Scholar
Census of India, 1931 , UP, Vol. XVIII, Part I, Report. 1933. Allahabad.Google Scholar
Chand [Moon]. 1924. “Deviyon savdhan” [Women beware]. May, 8–10.Google Scholar
Chand [Moon]. 1926a. “Stri haran” [Women's abduction], “Samachar sangrah” [Collection of news items]. June, 215.Google Scholar
Chand [Moon]. 1926b. “Samachar sangrah” [Collection of news items]. August, 431.Google Scholar
Chand [Moon]. 1927a. “Goondon ki zyadti” [Misdeeds of goondas], “Samachar sangrah” [Collection of news items]. February, 472.Google Scholar
Chand [Moon]. 1927b. “Paap ki granthiyan” [Deeds of sins]. Special issue on untouchables. May, 2–6.Google Scholar
Chand [Moon]. 1927c. “Achhut aur Hindu samaj” [Untouchables and Hindu society]. May, 41–51.Google Scholar
Chand [Moon]. 1927d. “Achhut nari ki durdasha” [Pathetic condition of untouchable woman]. May, 175–78.Google Scholar
Chand [Moon]. 1927e. “Samachar sangrah” [Collection of news items]. December, 312.Google Scholar
Chand [Moon]. 1929a. “Hinduon ka bhayankar haas” [Cataclysmic decline of Hindus]. January, 446–60.Google Scholar
Chand [Moon]. 1929b. [Cartoon]. May, 77.Google Scholar
Chandra Lila sadhuni ka vritant [Biographical account of Chandra Lila, a lower-caste female convert]. 1910. 2nd ed. Allahabad: Christian Literature Society for India.Google Scholar
Chandra, Sudhir. 1998. Enslaved Daughters: Colonialism, Law and Women's Rights. Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Chandrikaprasad. 1917. Hinduon ke sath vishwasghat [Treachery with the Hindus]. Awadh: Hindu Dharm Rakshak.Google Scholar
Charitra sudhar [Character improvement]. 1910. Allahabad: Christian Literature Society for India.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, Indrani. 1999. Gender, Slavery and Law in Colonial India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Chowdhry, Prem. 2007. Contentious Marriages, Eloping Couples: Gender, Caste and Patriarchy in Northern India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Christian Vernacular Education Society. 1875. Conference on Urdu and Hindi Christian Literature Held at Allahabad, 24–25 February 1875. Madras.Google Scholar
Church Missionary Society. 1926. The Mass Movement in the United Provinces: A Survey and Statement of Needs. Kottayam: CMS Press.Google Scholar
Clarke, Sathianathan. 1998. Dalits and Christianity: Subaltern Religion and Liberation Theology in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Clayton, A. C. 1911. Preachers in Print: An Outline of the Work of the Christian Literary Society for India. London: Christian Literary Society.Google Scholar
Cohn, Bernard. 1989. “Cloth, Clothes and Colonialism: Indian in the Nineteenth Century.” In Cloth and Human Experience, eds. Weiner, Annette B. and Schneider, Jane, 106–62. Washington, D.C..: Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar
Collin, Marcus. 2003. Modern Love: An Intimate History of Men and Women in Twentieth-Century Britain. London: Atlantic Books.Google Scholar
Copley, Antony. 1997. Religions in Conflict: Ideology, Cultural Contact and Conversion in Late Colonial India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Crooke, W. [1896] 1974. The Tribes and Castes of the North Western India: Vol. I. Delhi: Cosmo Publications.Google Scholar
De, Rohit. 2010. “The Two Husbands of Vera Tiscenko: Apostasy, Conversion, and Divorce in Late Colonial India.” Law and History Review 28(4):1011–41.Google Scholar
de Certeau, Michel. 1984. The Practice of Everyday Life. Translated by Rendall, Steven F.. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Devi devta aur murti puja [Goddesses, gods, and idol worship]. 1923. 2nd ed. Allahabad: North India Christian Tract and Book Society.Google Scholar
Devi, Yashoda. 1933. Dampatya prem aur rati-kriya ka gupt rahasya [Secret of love and sex between the married couple]. Allahabad: Devi Pustakalaya.Google Scholar
Dube, Saurabh. 1998. Untouchable Pasts: Religion, Identity and Power among a Central Indian Community, 1780–1950. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Dube, Saurabh. 2004. “Colonial Registers of a Vernacular Christianity: Conversion to Translation.” Economic and Political Weekly 39(2):161–71.Google Scholar
Dube, Sukhnandan Prasad. 1933. Chua chut ka bhut [The ghost of pollution taboos]. Lucknow: Awasthi Pustakalya.Google Scholar
Dwivedi, Manan. 1924. Humara bhishan haas [Our cataclysmic decline]. 3rd ed. Kanpur: Pratap.Google Scholar
Eaton, Richard. 1993. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emery, P. 1928. “The Village Day School.” In Report of the Conference of the Depressed Classes Committee, October 9–11, Cawnpore, 13–19. Lucknow: Methodist Publishing House.Google Scholar
Fernandes, Walter. 1994. Caste and Conversion Movements: Religion and Human Rights. Delhi: Indian Social Institute.Google Scholar
Flemming, Leslie A. 1992. “A New Humanity: American Missionaries' Ideals for Indian Women in North India, 1870–1930.” In Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, eds. Chaudhuri, Nupur and Strobel, Margaret, 191–206. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Forbes, Geraldine H. 1986. “In Search of the ‘Pure Heathen’: Missionary Women in Nineteenth Century India.” Economic and Political Weekly 21(17):WS-2–8.Google Scholar
Forrester, Duncan B. 1979. Caste and Christianity: Attitudes and Policies on Caste on Anglo-Saxon Protestant Missions in India. London: Curzon.Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 1979. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage.Google Scholar
Freitag, Sandria B. 1989. Collective Action and Community: Public Arenas and the Emergence of Communalism in North India. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Friedman, Sara L. 2006. Intimate Politics: Marriage, the Market, and State Power in Southeastern China. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gaines, Jane, and Herzog, Charlotte, eds. 1990. Fabrications: Costume and the Female Body. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Galanter, Marc. 1997. Law and Society in Modern India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ghai, R. K. 1990. Shuddhi Movement in India: A Study of Its Socio-political Dimensions. Delhi: Commonwealth Publishers.Google Scholar
Gladstone, John Wilson. 1984. Protestant Christianity and People's Movement in Kerala: A Study of Christian Mass Movements in Relation to Neo-Hindu Socio-Religious Movements in Kerala, 1850–1936. Trivandrum: Seminary Publications.Google Scholar
Gooptu, Nandini. 2001. The Politics of the Urban Poor in Early Twentieth-Century India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gupta, Charu. 2001. Sexuality, Obscenity, Community: Women, Muslims and the Hindu Public in Colonial India. Delhi: Permanent Black.Google Scholar
Gupta, Charu. 2010. “Feminine, Criminal or Manly? Imaging Dalit Masculinities in Colonial North India.” Indian Economic and Social History Review 47(3):309–42.Google Scholar
Haggis, Jane. 2000. “Ironies of Emancipation: Changing Configurations of ‘Women's Work’ in the ‘Mission of Sisterhood’ to Indian Women.” Feminist Review 65:108–26.Google Scholar
Hardgrave, Robert L. 1968. “The Breast-Cloth Controversy: Caste Consciousness and Social Change in Southern Travancore.” Indian Economic and Social History Review 5(2):171–87.Google Scholar
Hasan, Mushirul. 2007. Wit and Humour in Colonial North India. Delhi: Niyogi Books.Google Scholar
Heinrich, C. 1928. “The Church's Responsibility for Evangelism.” In Report of the Conference of the Depressed Classes Committee, October 9–11, Cawnpore, 91–96. Lucknow: Methodist Publishing House.Google Scholar
Hindu dharm ke phal [Fruits of Hinduism]. 1905. 2nd ed. Allahabad: North Indian Christian Tract and Book Society.Google Scholar
Hinduon ki nirdhanta [Causes of Hindu poverty]. 1909. 2nd ed. Allahabad: North Indian Christian Tract and Book Society.Google Scholar
Ilaiah, Kancha. 2003. “Cultural Globalization.” The Hindu. February 22.Google Scholar
Jati ki chut chat [Unreasonableness of caste]. 1905. Allahabad: North Indian Christian Tract and Book Society.Google Scholar
Jati panti kavarnan [Explanation of caste]. 1924. 4th ed. Allahabad: North Indian Christian Tract and Book Society.Google Scholar
Jati pariksha [Test of caste]. 1906. Allahabad: North Indian Christian Tract and Book Society.Google Scholar
Jha, Brijmohan. 1925. Hinduon jago [Hindus awake]. 2nd ed. Agra: Maithil Prabha.Google Scholar
Jigyasu, Chandrika Prasad. 1960. Sri 108 Swami Achhutanandji Harihar [Biography of Achhutanand]. Lucknow: Bahujan Kalyan Prakashan.Google Scholar
Jordens, J. T. F. 1981. Swami Shraddhananda: His Life and Causes. Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kedia, Baijnath. 1933. Vyanga chitravali, Part I [Selected collection of cartoons depicting social evils of Indian society]. Kashi: Hindi Pustak Agency.Google Scholar
Kent, Eliza F. 2004. Converting Women: Gender and Protestant Christianity in Colonial South India. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kooiman, Dick. 1989. Conversion and Social Equality in India: The London Missionary Society in South Travancore in the 19th Century. Delhi: Manohar.Google Scholar
Kshirsagar, R. K. 1994. Dalit Movement in India and Its Leaders (1857–1956). Delhi: MD Publications.Google Scholar
Langhamer, Claire. 2007. “Love and Courtship in Mid-Twentieth Century England.” Historical Journal 50(1):173–96.Google Scholar
Lara lari [Story of quarrelsome women]. 1905. 5th ed. Translated by Rev. Johnson, W. F.. Allahabad: North Indian Christian Tract and Book Society.Google Scholar
Laxman, R. K. 1989. “Freedom to Cartoon, Freedom to Speak.” Daedalus 118(4):68–91.Google Scholar
Laxman, R. K. 1990. The Best of Laxman. Delhi: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Lloyd, H. 1882. Hindu Women: With Glimpses into Their Life and Zenanas. London: Zenana Missionary Society.Google Scholar
Lucas, J. J. n.d. History of the North Indian Christian Tract and Book Society (1848–1934). Allahabad: Mission Press.Google Scholar
Lynch, Owen M. 1969. The Politics of Untouchability: Social Mobility and Social Change in a City of India. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Mallampalli, Chandra. 2010. “Escaping the Grip of Personal Law in Colonial India: Proving Custom, Negotiating Hindu-ness.”Law and History Review 28(4):1043–65.Google Scholar
Mem sahiba aur ayah ki katha [The story of the lady and the ayah]. 1896. Translated by Rev. Johnson, W. F., from a story by Mrs. Sherwood. Allahabad: Christian Literary Society.Google Scholar
Menon, Dilip M. 2006. The Blindness of Insight: Essays on Caste in Modern India. Pondicherry: Navayana Publishing.Google Scholar
Moonje, B. S. 1935. Private papers. Nehru Memorial Museum and Library. File No. 42/1935.Google Scholar
Morris, Miss E. 1917. Village Education: Its Goal and How to Attain It. Ludhiana: Ludhiana Mission Steam Press.Google Scholar
Mujahid, Abdul Malik. 1989. Conversion to Islam: Untouchables' Strategy for Protest in India. Chambersburg: Anima Publications.Google Scholar
Nair, Janaki. 1996. Women and Law in Colonial India: A Social History. Delhi: Kali for Women.Google Scholar
National Archives of India. 1925. Home Political Branch. 140/1925.Google Scholar
National Archives of India. 1927. Home Political Branch. 4/1927.Google Scholar
Nesfield, J. S. 1882. Brief View of the Caste System in North Western Provinces and Oudh. Allahabad: Government Press.Google Scholar
Nevill, H. R. 1904. Meerut District Gazetteer. Allahabad: Government Press.Google Scholar
Nigam, Aditya. 2010. “The Heterotopias of Dalit Politics: Becoming-Subject and the Consumption Utopia.” In Utopia/Dystopia: Conditions of Historical Possibility, eds. Gordin, Michael D., Tilley, Helen, and Prakash, Gyan, 250–76. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Nijhawan, Shobna. 2012. Women and Girls in the Hindi Public Sphere: Periodical Literature in Colonial North India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Oddie, Geoffrey A. 1969. “Protestant Missions, Caste and Social Change in India, 1850–1914.” Indian Economic and Social History Review 6(3):259–91.Google Scholar
Oddie, Geoffrey A. 1997. Religious Conversion Movements in South Asia: Continuities and Change 1800–1900. Surrey: Curzon Press.Google Scholar
Oesterheld, Christina, and Zoller, Claus Peter, eds. 1999. Of Clowns and Gods, Brahmans and Babus: Humour in South Asian Literature. Delhi: Manohar.Google Scholar
Orsini, Francesca. 2002. The Hindi Public Sphere, 1920–1940: Language and Literature in the Age of Nationalism. Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Orsini, Francesca. 2007. “Introduction.” In Love in South Asia: A Cultural History, ed. Orsini, Francesca, 1–39. Delhi: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pandey, Gyanendra. 1978. The Ascendancy of the Congress in UP, 1926–34: A Study in Imperfect Mobilisation. Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pandey, Gyanendra. 2006. “The Time of the Dalit Conversion.” Economic and Political Weekly 41(18):1779–88.Google Scholar
Parmanand, Bhai. 1928. Hindu jati ka rahasya [Secret of Hindu community]. Lucknow: Hindu Sabha.Google Scholar
Pati, Biswamoy. 2003. Identity, Hegemony and Resistance: Towards the Social History of Conversions in Orissa, 1800–2000. Delhi: Three Essays Collective.Google Scholar
Pemberton, J. F., and Perfumi, L. C.. 1915. A Century of Work in Meerut, 1815–1915. Sikandra: Church Missionary Society.Google Scholar
Philip, Puthenveettil O. 1925. The Depressed Classes and Christianity. Calcutta: The National Christian Council.Google Scholar
Phillips, Godfrey E. 1912. The Outcastes Hope or Work among the Depressed Classes in India. London: Young People's Missionary Movement.Google Scholar
Pickett, J. Waskom. 1933. Christian Mass Movements in India: A Study with Recommendations. Lucknow: Lucknow Publishing House.Google Scholar
Pitman, Emma Raymond. 1906. Indian Zenana Missions: Their Need, Origin, Objects, Agents, Modes of Working and Results. London: John Snow & Comp.Google Scholar
Police Abstracts of Intelligence of UP Government (PAI) . 1922–40. Lucknow: Criminal Investigation Department Office.Google Scholar
Pratap [Glory]. 1938. [Untitled comment]. March 27, 8.Google Scholar
Raghuvanshi, U. B. S. 1916. Chanvar puran [A caste tract on the Chamars]. Aligarh: Commerical Press.Google Scholar
Ramagundam, Rahul. 2008. Gandhi's Khadi: A History of Contention and Conciliation. Delhi: Orient Longman.Google Scholar
Rao, Anupama. 2009. The Caste Question: Dalits and the Politics of Modern India. Delhi: Permanent Black.Google Scholar
Ratnmala [Garland of pearls]. 1869. Allahabad: Christian Vernacular Education Society, Mission Press.Google Scholar
Rawat, Ramnarayan S. 2012. Reconsidering Untouchability: Chamars and Dalit History in North India. Delhi: Permanent Black.Google Scholar
Raychaudhuri, Tapan. 2000. “Love in a Colonial Climate: Marriage, Sex and Romance in Nineteenth-Century Bengal.” Modern Asian Studies 34(2):349–78.Google Scholar
Ross, Robert. 2008. Clothing: A Global History. Cambridge, UK: Polity.Google Scholar
Sahay, K. N. 1998. An Anthropological Study of Cartoon in India. Delhi: Commonwealth Publishers.Google Scholar
Sangari, Kumkum. 2001. Politics of the Possible: Essays on Gender, History, Narratives, Colonial English. Delhi: Tulika.Google Scholar
Sanyasi, Shradhanand. 1919. Jati ke dinon ko mat tyago arthat 7 karor dinon ki raksha [Do not abandon the powerless in castes meaning protection of 70 million powerless]. Delhi: Sadharm Pracharak Press.Google Scholar
Sarkar, Tanika. 2009. Rebels, Wives, Saints: Designing Selves and Nations in Colonial Times. Ranikhet: Permanent Black.Google Scholar
Semple, Rhonda Anne. 2003. Missionary Women: Gender, Professionalism and the Victorian Idea of Christian Mission. Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: Boydell Press.Google Scholar
Sharda, Chand Karan. 1925. Dalitodhar [Dalit upliftment]. Ajmer: Arya Sabha.Google Scholar
Sharma, Raj Bahadur. 1988. Christian Missions in North India 1813–1913 (A Case Study of Meerut Division and Dehra Dun District). Delhi: Mittal Publications.Google Scholar
Shukla, Ramgopal. 1934. Achhutodhar arthat kattar panthiyon ki chillapon [Upliftment of untouchable meaning the clamor of conservatives]. 2nd ed. Kanpur: Arya Samaj.Google Scholar
Sikand, Yoginder Singh. 2004. Islam, Caste and Dalit-Muslim Relations in India. Delhi: Global Media Publications.Google Scholar
Singh, Maina Chawala. 2000. Gender, Religion, and “Heathen Lands”: American Missionary Women in South Asia,1860s–1940s. New York: Garland Publishing.Google Scholar
Singh, Mohinder. 1947. The Depressed Classes: Their Economic and Social Condition. Bombay: Hind Kitab Ltd.Google Scholar
Singha, Radhika. 1998. A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Speer, Robert E., and Hallock, Constance M., eds. 1939. Christian Home Making. New York: Round Table Press.Google Scholar
Stewart, A. M. 1928. “Education of Village Girls.” In Report of the Conference of the Depressed Classes Committee, October 9–11, Cawnpore, 27–30. Lucknow: Methodist Publishing House.Google Scholar
Stoler, Ann Laura. 1995. Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Sudha . 1929. “Hinduon ka haas” [Decline of Hindus]. June, 541.Google Scholar
Survey of Evangelistic Work, Punjab Mission of the Presbyterian Church USA . 1929. Lucknow.Google Scholar
Tarlo, Emma. 1996. Clothing Matters: Dress and Identity in India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Trivedi, Lisa N. 2007. Clothing Gandhi's Nation: Homespun and Modern India. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Upadhyaya, Gangaprasad. 1925. Padri sahib se bacho [Beware of the priest]. Prayag: Arya Samaj Chowk.Google Scholar
Vishwanathan, Gauri. 1998. Outside the Fold: Conversion, Modernity, and Belief. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Vyanga chitravali [Collection of cartoons and caricatures]. 1930. Allahabad: ‘Chand’ Karyalaya.Google Scholar
Walton, H. G. 1903. A Monograph on Tanning and Working in Leather in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Allahabad: Government Press.Google Scholar
Webster, John C. B. 1994. The Dalit Christians: A History. 2nd ed. Delhi: Indian Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.Google Scholar
Webster, John C. B. 1999. Religion and Dalit Liberation. Delhi: Manohar.Google Scholar
Zelliot, Eleanor. 1992. From Untouchable to Dalit: Essays of Ambedkarite Movement. Delhi: Manohar.Google Scholar