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The Frontier Crimes Regulation and Frontier Governmentality

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 March 2015

Benjamin D. Hopkins
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Abstract

From the invention of imperial authority along the North-West Frontier of British India, subjects were divided between the “civilized” inhabitants populating the cultivated plains and the “wild tribes” living in the hills. The problem of governing this latter group, the “independent tribes,” proved a vexed one for the British Raj. The mechanism developed by imperial administrators to manage the frontier inhabitants was the Frontier Crimes Regulation (FCR), first promulgated in 1872 and still in effect today. The FCR was designed to exclude the Frontier's inhabitants from the colonial judiciary, and more broadly the colonial sphere, encapsulating them in their own colonially sanctioned “tradition.” Exploring the use of the FCR as an instrument of governance from its first inception into the twentieth century, this article argues that it was key to shaping the nature of frontier rule, which in turn shaped the very nature of the colonial state itself.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 74 , Issue 2 , May 2015 , pp. 369 - 389
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2015 

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References

List of References

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British Library, India Office Records, London. 1903. Administration Report of the Northwest Frontier Province from 9th November 1901 to 31st March 1903. NWFP Administration Reports. V/10/370.Google Scholar
National Archives, London, Colonial Office Records. 1934. “Special Districts Administrative Ordinance.” The Official Gazette of the Colony and Protectorate of Kenya. CO 542/32, 417.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1850. Maj. H. P. Burn to Lumsden, August 30. Secret Consultations, vol. 15.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1870. Notification, June. Political A, vol. 170.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1871. Lepel H. Griffin, Offg. Secy. to the Govt., Punjab, to Secy. to Govt. of India, Foreign Department, September. Political A, vol. 206.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1880. Appendix A: Extract paras. 3 to 10 and 20 to 24 from Frontier Memorandum, May. Political A, no. 186.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1887a. A. H. Benton, Sessions Judge, Peshawar Division to the Commissioner and Superintendent, Peshawar Division. Frontier A, no. 118.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1887b. Regarding the State of Crime in the Peshawar Division, July. Frontier A, vol. 103-23, K. W. No. 1.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1888a. Henry M. Durand, Secretary to the Government of India, Foreign Department, to the Secretary to the Government of the Punjab, January. Frontier A, no. 30.Google Scholar
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Bruce, Richard Isaac. 1900. The Forward Policy and Its Results: Or Thirty-Five Years Work Amongst the Tribes on Our North-Western Frontier of India. London: Longmans, Green and Co.Google Scholar
Clunan, Anne L. 2010. “Ungoverned Spaces? The Need for Reevaluation.” In Ungoverned Spaces: Alternatives to State Authority in an Era of Softened Sovereignty, eds. Clunan, Anne L. and Trinkunas, Harold A., 3–16. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Copland, Ian. 1982. The British Raj and the Indian Princes: Paramountcy in Western India, 1857-1930. Bombay: Orient Longman.Google Scholar
Curzon, George. 1907. Frontiers: The Romanes Lectures 1907. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Dirks, Nicholas. 2001. Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Edney, Matthew. 1990. Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765-1843. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Elphinstone, Mountstuart. [1815] 1991. An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul. 3rd ed. 2 vols. Karachi: Indus Publications.Google Scholar
Elsmie, George R. 1908. Thirty-Five Years in the Punjab. Edinburgh: David Douglas.Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 1991. “Governmentality.” In The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality: With Two Lectures by and an Interview with Michel Foucault, eds. Burchell, Graham, Gordon, Colin, and Miller, Peter, 87–104. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Freitag, Sandra. 1991. “Crime in the Social Order of Colonial North India.” Modern Asian Studies 25(2):227–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glanville, Luke. 2013. “The Myth of ‘Traditional’ Sovereignty.” International Studies Quarterly 57(1):79–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon-Walker, T. 1886. Report of the Administration of Criminal Justice in the Punjab and Its Dependencies during the Year 1885. Lahore: W. Ball & Co.Google Scholar
Green, Nile. 2008. “Tribe, Diaspora, and Sainthood in Afghan History.” Journal of Asian Studies 67(1):171–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guha, Ranajit. 1963. A Rule of Property for Bengal: An Essay on the Idea of Permanent Settlement, Le monde d'outre-mer passe et present. Primiere serie: Etudes XIX. Paris: Mouton & Co.Google Scholar
Guha, Ranajit. 1997. Dominance Without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hanifi, Shah Mahmoud. 2011. Connecting Histories in Afghanistan: Market Relations and State Formation on a Colonial Frontier. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodson, T. C. [1937] 1987. India Census Ethnography, 1901-31. New Delhi: Usha.Google Scholar
Hopkins, Benjamin D. 2007. “The Bounds of Identity: The Goldsmid Mission and the Delineation of the Perso-Afghan Border in the Nineteenth Century.” Journal of Global History 2(2):233–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hopkins, Benjamin D. 2008. The Making of Modern Afghanistan. Basingstoke: PalgraveMacmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
International Crisis Group. 2006. Pakistan's Tribal Areas: Appeasing the Militants. Crisis Group Asia Report no. 125. Islamabad/Brussels: International Crisis Group. http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/asia/south-asia/pakistan/125_pakistans_tribal_areas___appeasing_the_militants.pdf (accessed January 20, 2015).Google Scholar
Johnson, Robert A. 2003. “‘Russians at the Gates of India?’ Planning the Defence of India, 1885-1900.” Journal of Military History 67(3):697–743.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorimer, J. G. 2013. “Customary Law of the Main Tribes in the Peshawar District.” In The Frontier Crimes Regulation: A History in Documents, ed. Nichols, Robert, 194–253. Karachi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Marsden, Magnus, and Hopkins, Benjamin D.. 2011. Fragments of the Afghan Frontier. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Misra, Sanghamitra. 1998. “The Nature of Colonial Intervention in the Naga Hills, 1840-80.” Economic and Political Weekly 33(51):3273–79.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Timothy. 2002. Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-politics, Modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nichols, Robert. 2008. A History of Pashtun Migration, 1775-2006. Karachi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
“The Punjab Frontier Crimes Regulation, 1887.” 1888. In The Punjab Code: Consisting of the Unrepealed Bengal Regulations, Local Acts of the Governor General in Council, and Regulations Made under the Statute 33 Victoria, Cap. 3, in Force in the Punjab, 390–405. Calcutta: The Superintendent of Government Printing.Google Scholar
Rattigan, H. A. B., ed. 1899. “Regulation No. IV of 1887: The Punjab Frontier Crimes Regulation.” In The Bengal Regulations, the Acts of the Governor-General in Council, and the Frontier Regulations, Made under the Thirty-third of Victoria, Chapter Three, Applicable to the Punjab with Notes and an Index: Vol. III Containing Acts from 1887 to end of 1895, and Punjab Frontier Regulations from 1870 to 1893, 2835–51. Lahore: Civil and Military Gazette Press.Google Scholar
Rattigan, H. A. B. 1903. “Regulation No. III of 1901: The Frontier Crimes Regulation.” In The Bengal Regulations, the Acts of the Governor-General in Council, and the Frontier Regulations, Made Under the Thirty-third of Victoria, Chapter Three, Applicable to the Punjab with Notes and an Index: Vol. IV Containing India Acts from 1896 to 1902, Punjab Acts from 1898 to 1902 and Frontier Regulations 1901, 559–77. Lahore: Civil and Military Gazette Press.Google Scholar
Robb, Peter. 1997. “The Colonial State and Constructions of Indian Identity: An Example of the Northeast Frontier in the 1880s.” Modern Asian Studies 31(2):245–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rumi, Raza Ahmad. 2012. “Pakistan: Ungoverned Spaces.” CIDOB Policy Research Papers, Barcelona Centre for International Affairs, Barcelona. http://www.cidob.org/en/publications/stap_rp/policy_research_papers/pakistan_ungoverned_spaces (accessed January 22, 2015).Google Scholar
Scott, James C. 2009. The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Sherman, Taylor C. 2010. State Violence and Punishment in India. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sikdar, Sudatta. 1982. “Tribalism vs. Colonialism: British Capitalistic Intervention and Transformation of Primitive Economy of Arunachal Pradesh in the Nineteenth Century.” Social Scientist 10(12):15–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinha, Mrinalini. 1995. Colonial Masculinity: The ‘Manly Englishman’ and the ‘Effeminate Bengali’ in the Late Nineteenth Century. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Skaria, Ajay. 1997. “Shades of Wildness: Tribe, Caste, and Gender in Western India.” Journal of Asian Studies 56(3):726–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sokefeld, Martin. 2005. “From Colonialism to Postcolonial Colonialism: Changing Modes of Domination in the Northern Areas of Pakistan.” Journal of Asian Studies 64(4):939–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoler, Ann Laura. 2006. “On Degrees of Imperial Sovereignty.” Public Culture 18(1):125–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Talbot, Ian. 1991. “British Rule in the Punjab, 1849-1947: Characteristics and Consequences.” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 19(2):203–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanguay-Renaud, Francois. 2002. “Post-colonial Pluralism, Human Rights and the Administration of Criminal Justice in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan.” Singapore Journal of International and Comparative Law 6:541–96.Google Scholar
Titus, Paul. 1998. “Honor the Baloch, Buy the Pushtun: Stereotypes, Social Organization and History in Western Pakistan.” Modern Asian Studies 32(3):657–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vail, Leroy. 1989. “Introduction: Ethnicity in Southern African History.” In The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa, ed. Vail, Leroy, 1–20. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Xaxa, Virginius. 1999. “Transformation of Tribes in India: Terms of Discourse.” Economic and Political Weekly 34(24):1519–24.Google Scholar
Yang, Anand. 1985. “Dangerous Castes and Tribes: The Criminal Tribes Act and the Magahiya Doms of Northeast India.” In Crime and Criminality in British India, ed. Yang, Anand, 108–27. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records, London. 1872. “The Frontier Crimes Regulation.” The Punjab Government Gazette. V/11/2779B.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records, London. 1876. C. U. Aitchison, Foreign Department – (Political), November 2. L/P&S 7/11, vol. 217, 309–20.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records, London. 1886a. L. W. Dane, Officiating Registrar Chief Court, Punjab, to Young, Secretary to Government, Punjab, July 29. L/P&J 6/202, vol. 776, 311–24.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records, London. 1886b. W. M. Young to the Officiating Commissioner and Superintendent, Peshawar Division, February 15. L/P&J 6/202, vol. 776, 307.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records, London. 1887. Correspondence, May 12. L/P&J 6/202, vol. 776, 295–301.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records, London. 1897. Regulation No. V of 1896: The Chin Hills Regulation, 1896, with Rules Framed Thereunder, and Notifications, May. L/P&S 18/B146.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records, London. 1898. Regulation No. I of 1898: A Regulation to Amend the Kachin Hill-Tribes Regulation, 1895. May. L/P&S 18/B147.Google Scholar
British Library, India Office Records, London. 1903. Administration Report of the Northwest Frontier Province from 9th November 1901 to 31st March 1903. NWFP Administration Reports. V/10/370.Google Scholar
National Archives, London, Colonial Office Records. 1934. “Special Districts Administrative Ordinance.” The Official Gazette of the Colony and Protectorate of Kenya. CO 542/32, 417.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1850. Maj. H. P. Burn to Lumsden, August 30. Secret Consultations, vol. 15.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1870. Notification, June. Political A, vol. 170.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1871. Lepel H. Griffin, Offg. Secy. to the Govt., Punjab, to Secy. to Govt. of India, Foreign Department, September. Political A, vol. 206.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1880. Appendix A: Extract paras. 3 to 10 and 20 to 24 from Frontier Memorandum, May. Political A, no. 186.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1887a. A. H. Benton, Sessions Judge, Peshawar Division to the Commissioner and Superintendent, Peshawar Division. Frontier A, no. 118.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1887b. Regarding the State of Crime in the Peshawar Division, July. Frontier A, vol. 103-23, K. W. No. 1.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1888a. Henry M. Durand, Secretary to the Government of India, Foreign Department, to the Secretary to the Government of the Punjab, January. Frontier A, no. 30.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1888b. W. G. Waterfield, Commissioner and Superintendent, Peshawar Division, to the Deputy Commissioner, Kohat. Frontier A, no. 16.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1888c. Empress vs. Muhammad Umar Khan, et. al. Frontier A, no. 146.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi, Foreign Department. 1890. Regulation No. IV of 1889. Frontier A, no. 45.Google Scholar
Abou Zahab, Mariam. 2013. “Kashars Against Mashars: Jihad and Social Change in the FATA.” In Beyond Swat: History, Society and Economy Along the Afghanistan-Pakistan Frontier, eds. Hopkins, Benjamin D. and Marsden, Magnus, 93–106. London: C. Hurst & Co.Google Scholar
Ahmed, Akbar. 1979. “Colonial Encounter on the North West Frontier Province.” Economic and Political Weekly 14(51–52):2092–97.Google Scholar
The Baluchistan Code. 1890. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing.Google Scholar
Barth, Fredrik. 1969. “Pathan Identity and Its Maintenance.” In Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Cultural Difference, ed. Barth, Fredrik, 117–34. London: George Allen & Unwin.Google Scholar
Benton, Lauren. 1999. “Colonial Law and Cultural Difference: Jurisdictional Politics and the Formation of the Colonial State.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 41(3):563–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benton, Lauren. 2010. A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400–1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Berry, Charles Allen. 1987. The Secret of Vatican Hill. Harbor City, Calif.: Allen & Nuri.Google Scholar
Beverley, Eric Lewis. 2013. “Frontier as Resource: Law, Crime, and Sovereignty on the Margins of Empire.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 55(2):241–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruce, Richard Isaac. 1900. The Forward Policy and Its Results: Or Thirty-Five Years Work Amongst the Tribes on Our North-Western Frontier of India. London: Longmans, Green and Co.Google Scholar
Clunan, Anne L. 2010. “Ungoverned Spaces? The Need for Reevaluation.” In Ungoverned Spaces: Alternatives to State Authority in an Era of Softened Sovereignty, eds. Clunan, Anne L. and Trinkunas, Harold A., 3–16. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Copland, Ian. 1982. The British Raj and the Indian Princes: Paramountcy in Western India, 1857-1930. Bombay: Orient Longman.Google Scholar
Curzon, George. 1907. Frontiers: The Romanes Lectures 1907. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Dirks, Nicholas. 2001. Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Edney, Matthew. 1990. Mapping an Empire: The Geographical Construction of British India, 1765-1843. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Elphinstone, Mountstuart. [1815] 1991. An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul. 3rd ed. 2 vols. Karachi: Indus Publications.Google Scholar
Elsmie, George R. 1908. Thirty-Five Years in the Punjab. Edinburgh: David Douglas.Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 1991. “Governmentality.” In The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality: With Two Lectures by and an Interview with Michel Foucault, eds. Burchell, Graham, Gordon, Colin, and Miller, Peter, 87–104. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Freitag, Sandra. 1991. “Crime in the Social Order of Colonial North India.” Modern Asian Studies 25(2):227–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glanville, Luke. 2013. “The Myth of ‘Traditional’ Sovereignty.” International Studies Quarterly 57(1):79–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon-Walker, T. 1886. Report of the Administration of Criminal Justice in the Punjab and Its Dependencies during the Year 1885. Lahore: W. Ball & Co.Google Scholar
Green, Nile. 2008. “Tribe, Diaspora, and Sainthood in Afghan History.” Journal of Asian Studies 67(1):171–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guha, Ranajit. 1963. A Rule of Property for Bengal: An Essay on the Idea of Permanent Settlement, Le monde d'outre-mer passe et present. Primiere serie: Etudes XIX. Paris: Mouton & Co.Google Scholar
Guha, Ranajit. 1997. Dominance Without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hanifi, Shah Mahmoud. 2011. Connecting Histories in Afghanistan: Market Relations and State Formation on a Colonial Frontier. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodson, T. C. [1937] 1987. India Census Ethnography, 1901-31. New Delhi: Usha.Google Scholar
Hopkins, Benjamin D. 2007. “The Bounds of Identity: The Goldsmid Mission and the Delineation of the Perso-Afghan Border in the Nineteenth Century.” Journal of Global History 2(2):233–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hopkins, Benjamin D. 2008. The Making of Modern Afghanistan. Basingstoke: PalgraveMacmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
International Crisis Group. 2006. Pakistan's Tribal Areas: Appeasing the Militants. Crisis Group Asia Report no. 125. Islamabad/Brussels: International Crisis Group. http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/asia/south-asia/pakistan/125_pakistans_tribal_areas___appeasing_the_militants.pdf (accessed January 20, 2015).Google Scholar
Johnson, Robert A. 2003. “‘Russians at the Gates of India?’ Planning the Defence of India, 1885-1900.” Journal of Military History 67(3):697–743.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorimer, J. G. 2013. “Customary Law of the Main Tribes in the Peshawar District.” In The Frontier Crimes Regulation: A History in Documents, ed. Nichols, Robert, 194–253. Karachi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Marsden, Magnus, and Hopkins, Benjamin D.. 2011. Fragments of the Afghan Frontier. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Misra, Sanghamitra. 1998. “The Nature of Colonial Intervention in the Naga Hills, 1840-80.” Economic and Political Weekly 33(51):3273–79.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Timothy. 2002. Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-politics, Modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nichols, Robert. 2008. A History of Pashtun Migration, 1775-2006. Karachi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
“The Punjab Frontier Crimes Regulation, 1887.” 1888. In The Punjab Code: Consisting of the Unrepealed Bengal Regulations, Local Acts of the Governor General in Council, and Regulations Made under the Statute 33 Victoria, Cap. 3, in Force in the Punjab, 390–405. Calcutta: The Superintendent of Government Printing.Google Scholar
Rattigan, H. A. B., ed. 1899. “Regulation No. IV of 1887: The Punjab Frontier Crimes Regulation.” In The Bengal Regulations, the Acts of the Governor-General in Council, and the Frontier Regulations, Made under the Thirty-third of Victoria, Chapter Three, Applicable to the Punjab with Notes and an Index: Vol. III Containing Acts from 1887 to end of 1895, and Punjab Frontier Regulations from 1870 to 1893, 2835–51. Lahore: Civil and Military Gazette Press.Google Scholar
Rattigan, H. A. B. 1903. “Regulation No. III of 1901: The Frontier Crimes Regulation.” In The Bengal Regulations, the Acts of the Governor-General in Council, and the Frontier Regulations, Made Under the Thirty-third of Victoria, Chapter Three, Applicable to the Punjab with Notes and an Index: Vol. IV Containing India Acts from 1896 to 1902, Punjab Acts from 1898 to 1902 and Frontier Regulations 1901, 559–77. Lahore: Civil and Military Gazette Press.Google Scholar
Robb, Peter. 1997. “The Colonial State and Constructions of Indian Identity: An Example of the Northeast Frontier in the 1880s.” Modern Asian Studies 31(2):245–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rumi, Raza Ahmad. 2012. “Pakistan: Ungoverned Spaces.” CIDOB Policy Research Papers, Barcelona Centre for International Affairs, Barcelona. http://www.cidob.org/en/publications/stap_rp/policy_research_papers/pakistan_ungoverned_spaces (accessed January 22, 2015).Google Scholar
Scott, James C. 2009. The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Sherman, Taylor C. 2010. State Violence and Punishment in India. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sikdar, Sudatta. 1982. “Tribalism vs. Colonialism: British Capitalistic Intervention and Transformation of Primitive Economy of Arunachal Pradesh in the Nineteenth Century.” Social Scientist 10(12):15–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinha, Mrinalini. 1995. Colonial Masculinity: The ‘Manly Englishman’ and the ‘Effeminate Bengali’ in the Late Nineteenth Century. Manchester: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Skaria, Ajay. 1997. “Shades of Wildness: Tribe, Caste, and Gender in Western India.” Journal of Asian Studies 56(3):726–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sokefeld, Martin. 2005. “From Colonialism to Postcolonial Colonialism: Changing Modes of Domination in the Northern Areas of Pakistan.” Journal of Asian Studies 64(4):939–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoler, Ann Laura. 2006. “On Degrees of Imperial Sovereignty.” Public Culture 18(1):125–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Talbot, Ian. 1991. “British Rule in the Punjab, 1849-1947: Characteristics and Consequences.” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 19(2):203–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanguay-Renaud, Francois. 2002. “Post-colonial Pluralism, Human Rights and the Administration of Criminal Justice in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan.” Singapore Journal of International and Comparative Law 6:541–96.Google Scholar
Titus, Paul. 1998. “Honor the Baloch, Buy the Pushtun: Stereotypes, Social Organization and History in Western Pakistan.” Modern Asian Studies 32(3):657–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vail, Leroy. 1989. “Introduction: Ethnicity in Southern African History.” In The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa, ed. Vail, Leroy, 1–20. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Xaxa, Virginius. 1999. “Transformation of Tribes in India: Terms of Discourse.” Economic and Political Weekly 34(24):1519–24.Google Scholar
Yang, Anand. 1985. “Dangerous Castes and Tribes: The Criminal Tribes Act and the Magahiya Doms of Northeast India.” In Crime and Criminality in British India, ed. Yang, Anand, 108–27. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar