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Collaboration in Leyte: the Philippines, Under Japanese Occupation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 March 2011

Elmer N. Lear
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Extract

Collaboration, that is, the full cooperation of a subjected people with an enemy occupying power, may easily be misjudged. On the one hand the judge, holding in advance that the people under consideration are non-collaborators, may dismiss evidence which seems to confirm collaboration. On the other hand the judge may interpret the people's non-resistance to the invader's rule as endorsement and hence collaboration. In both cases analysis of collaboration rests upon value judgments and substitutes inference from abstraction for empirical investigation.

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Articles
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 11 , Issue 2 , February 1952 , pp. 183 - 206
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 1952

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References

1 The wartime Filipino resistance movement is not treated in this paper. The writer hopes to publish a separate paper dealing with this subject.

2 Ramon Mercado, Through Blood and Fire, (Unpub. MS., Tacloban: 1945).

3 Bernardo Torres, interviewed in Tacloban after his release from the political detention center, gave the impression of an intelligent, mild-mannered person, anxious to establish himself as a “victim of circumstances.” Born into a household of modest wealth (his father had been a successful farmer and merchant and was twice elected Mayor of Baybay), Torres was educated at Leyte High School and the University of the Philippines and directly entered the teaching profession. He promptly won recognition as an educator, advancing from high school teacher to supervising teacher at Carigara and then Academic Supervisor for the West Coast of Leyte.

From his father Torres acquired an interest in politics and he early joined the Veloso Faction (of the Nacionalista Party), powerful in Leytean affairs. His standing as a man of culture and integrity won him respect, while his geniality attracted a following. In 1928 he was elected Assemblyman from Leyte's first Congressional District. At the conclusion of his term, he remained in Manila and accepted a college professorship. Then in 1936 came the climax of Torres' academic career with appointment to the directorship of the Southern College of Cebu.

By 1938, Torres was hankering to return to government life. He accepted the Secretary-Treasurership of the National Land Settlement Administration and reēstablished active relations with the Veloso political organization in Leyte. Torres' opportunity came in November 1941 when, with the elevation of Governor Martinez to the senatotship, Torres was called upon to fill the vacancy.

Before Torres had quite adjusted to the gubernatorial routine, the debacle of Pearl Harbor overwhelmed him. With Leyte in a state of siege, he cooperated loyally with the American military command and declared himself repeatedly in favor of last-ditch Filipino resistance. But his political chief, Veloso, on special mission from Japanese-occupied Manila, was campaigning actively among the Leytenos for full cooperation with the New Order.

Did Torres have any secret entente with Veloso? There is no way of knowing. All that can be said is that following Leyte's military capitulation, Torres acquiesced to the Japanese occupation, and on the face of things cooperated fully. Torres' defenders argue that the Governor exercised a moderating influence over the pro-Japanese firebrands (led by Veloso and Salazar), that he saved many pro-guerrilla suspects from death at Japanese hands, that he attempted to improve the living conditions of his distressed countrymen, and that he held his anti-American utterances to a minimum. But his detractors hold him directly responsible for the strengthening of the Japanese garrison on Leyte and for the man-hunt to capture guerrilla intelligence chief Posuncuy, while evaluating his alleged paternalism as completely nugatory in effect.

Torres himself asserts that he detested his job and repeatedly sought to resign. Did he fear guerrilla retribution? Who can say? But in March 1944, he was permitted to abandon the governorship and assume direction of Leyte's food production program.

4 MS. Eluterio Can¯a (Mayor, Abuyog), Weekly Report to: the Provincial Governor September 22, 1942.

5 MS. C. Colasito (Mayor, Tolosa), Weekly Report to: the Prov. Gov., Aug. 29, 1942.

6 MS. Ramon Van¯o (Mayor, Maltibog), Report to: the Prov. Gov., Feb. 3, 1944.

7 MS. Jose. Codilla (Mayor, Ormoc), Report to: the Prov. Gov., Feb. 21, 1944.

8 Provincial Ordinance No. 9 made known the powers of the PRIMFA (as further elaborated by Ordinance No. 21): “The Leyte Prime Foodstuffs Association is the only entity authorized to procure, purchase, sell, exchange and distribute palay, rice and corn.” Private individuals were notified that with reference to their private holdings of grain: “All stocks of palay, rice and corn in excess of… allowance must be sold to the Leyte Prime Foodstuffs Association or its agency.…” MS. Pastor Salazar (Prov. Gov.), Prov. Ord. No. 21, March 28, 1944.

9 MS, Bernardo Torres (Prov. Gov.), Report to: Japanese Military Administration for the District of the Visayas, Dec. 21, 1942.

10 On one memorable occasion, the Japanese secret police rounded up about 200 merchants and officials (including the Provincial Treasurer) suspected of speculating in the occupation currency. Governor Torres interceded, offering this strange plea: “…They were led solely by the desire for gain to reap whatever profit they could under the circumstances.…” MS. Bernardo Torres, to: the Chief, Military Police, Japanese Imperial Force, Tacloban, January 27, 1944.

11 MS. Paulino Gullas (Commissioner for the Visayas), to: the Prov. Gov., Tacloban, Leyte, Feb. 10, 1944.

12 MS. “Resolution of Loyalty and Gratitude to the Imperial Japanese Forces in Leyte of the Municipal Mayors” in convention at Tacloban, Leyte, on October 12 and 13, 1942.

13 MS. Bernardo Torres, Report to: Commander, Dist. of Vis., JIF, March 1, 1943.

14 MS. P. Salazar, Report to: Commissioner of Interior through the Director of local Governments, Nov. 20, 1943.

15 MS. P. Salazar, Report of Activities: April 1-Oct. 31, 1943 to: Com. of Inter., through Director of Local Governments.

16 MS. P. Salazar, Report, Oct. 23, 1943.

17 Alfredo Parilla (Mayor, Palompon) Executive Order No. 5, March 25, 1944.

18 Order of Commander-in-chief of Japanese Forces in the Philippines, through Acting Governor Salazar, to: All Mayors, Aug. 12, 1942.

19 MS. Julie Bayona, “Recollection of a Newspaper,” (Tacloban: 1945) PP 4–5.

20 MS. Points taken up with district supervisors and principals by the acting division superintendent of schools during the conference on June 29 and 30, 1942, at Tacloban, Leyte.

21 MS. Florentino Kapili (Acting Div. Superintendent of Schools) Annual Report for the School year 1942–1943.

22 Interview: Palo, Leyte; October, 1945.

23 MS. Municipality of Dulag, Official program for the inauguration of the Republic of the Philippines. Also, Municipality of Alangalang, Official Program, etc.

24 MS. Jorge B. Vargas, (Chairman of Exec. Comm.) Exec. Order No. 77 Sec. 1 Aug. 7, 1942; amended March 17, 1943.

25 Clearly, the Japanese tonari-gumi served as the model of the Neighborhood Association.

26 MS. P. Salazar (Acting Provincial Governor) Report of Activities: April-October 31, 1943.

27 To galvanize the NA outside of Tacloban and coordinate activities throughout Leyte, the Governor appointed Ramon Esperas NA Supervisor in Feb., 1944. Esperas stated (in interview) that the burden of his duties allowed no time for field work.

28 MS. Jorge B. Vargas, Exec. Ord. No. 137, Sec. 5, March 17, 1943.

29 MS. Resolutions adopted, First Annual Visayan Convention, Cebu City, April 14–16, 1944. Resolution No. 16.

30 Ibid. Resolution No. 15.

31 Association for service to the new Philippines. The Kalibapi worker's handbook (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1943), p. 50.

32 MS. Satumino R. Gonzalez, Report to: Hon. Jose Delgado, director-at-large for the Visayas, p. 5.

33 MS. S. R. Gonzalez, Report to: Actg. Prov. Gov., P. Salazar, March 29, 1944.

34 MS. Emilio Benitez, Jr., (Leader, Leyte Prov. Chap. Kalibapi).

35 Ibid.

36 MS. B. Torres (Prov. Gov. Leyte) Memo: Aug. 30, 1943.

37 MS. B. Torres (Prov. Gov. Leyte) Memo: All Kalibapi members, Leyte, Sept. 16, 1943.