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“Sailing against the Wind”: A Reappraisal of Edward Kennedy's Campaign for the 1980 Democratic Party Presidential Nomination

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 July 2009

TIMOTHY RANDOLPH STANLEY
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Abstract

In 1980 Senator Edward Kennedy challenged incumbent President Jimmy Carter for the Democratic Party presidential nomination. Kennedy's defeat has often been used as evidence of a philosophical realignment within the American electorate in the late 1970s away from Democratic liberalism, which culminated in the election of Ronald Reagan as President. However, Kennedy performed better than this interpretation suggests. His defeat was caused by historical accident: a poor campaign, international crises and Carter's use of the incumbency. The strengths of the Kennedy campaign cast doubt upon the theory of realignment and suggest that liberalism enjoyed greater support among the US electorate than has previously been considered.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of American Studies , Volume 43 , Issue 2 , August 2009 , pp. 231 - 253
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

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References

1 “For Democrats a Madhouse in Memphis,” Los Angeles Times, 6 Dec. 1978, E7.

2 “Labor Dissidents Confront Carter with a High Noon Challenge,” Los Angeles Times, 14 Dec. 1978, D11.

3 “Democrats Seeking to Curb Floor Fights,” Washington Post, 1 Dec. 1978, A17; “Kennedy Assails Carter on Budget at Midterm Meeting of Democrats,” New York Times, 10 Dec. 1978, 1.

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7 William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner-City, the Underclass and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1988), 120. For the definitive discussion about ‘universalist’ policy see Theda Skocpol, Social Policy in the United Sates: Future Possibilities in Historical Perspective (Princeton: University of Princeton Press 1995).

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12 For general work on the political and cultural state of liberalism in the 1970s see William C. Berman, America's Right Turn: From Nixon to Bush (London: John Hopkins University Press, 1994), 58–59; Peter N. Carroll It Seemed Like Nothing Happened: American in the 1970s (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1990), 348; Bruce J. Schulman, The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Society and Politics (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2002), 121–43; Edward D. Berkowitz, Something Happened: A Political and Cultural Overview of the Seventies (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 227; David Frum, How We Got Here: The Decade That Brought You Modern Life – For Better or Worse (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 12; Michael Barone, Our Country: The Shaping of America from Roosevelt to Reagan (London: Collier MacMillan, 1990), 572. For a specific analysis on the emergent ‘radicalism’ of the New Politics see Gareth Davies, From Opportunity to Entitlement: The Transformation and Decline of Great Society Liberalism (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1996), 219–243; Dominic Sandbrook, Eugene McCarthy: The Rise and Fall of Postwar Liberalism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004); John A. Farrell, Tip O'Neill and the Democratic Century (London: Little Brown, 2001), 525. A more balanced view of the New Politics can be found in LeRoy Ashby, Fighting the Odds: The Life of Senator Frank Church (Washington: Washington State University Press, 1994), 347. For the impact of the New Deal/New Politics divide upon the Democratic Party's electoral performance and its political significance see Miller, Arthur H., Miller, Warren E., Raine, Alden S. and Brown, Thad A., “A Majority Party in Disarray: Policy Polarization in the 1972 Election,” American Political Science Review, 70 (1976), 753–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Steven M. Gillon, Politics and Vision: The ADA and American Liberalism, 1945–85 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987); William G. Mayer, Divided Democrats: Ideological Unity, Party Reform and Presidential Election (Oxford: Westview, 1996), 45.

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14 For the classical theory of realignment see Key, V. O., “A Theory of Critical Elections,” Journal of Politics, 17 (1955), 3–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Angus Campbell, “A Classification of Presidential Elections,” in Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, Donald E. Stokes, eds., Elections and the Political Order, (New York: Wiley, 1966), 63–77.

15 James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment of Political Parties in the United States (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1983), 437.

16 Terrel L. Rhodes, Republicans in the South: Voting for the State House, Voting for the White House (London: Praeger, 2000), 44.

17 Richard Scammon and Ben Wattenberg, The Real Majority (New York: Coward-McCann, 1971), 125.

18 Miller, Arthur H. and Miller, Warren E., “Issues, Candidates and Partisan Divisions in the 1972 American Presidential Election,” British Journal of Political Science, 8 (1975), 129–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For the impact of Democratic social liberalism upon voting patterns and the gains made by Republicans as a result see Kevin P. Phillips, The Emerging Republican Majority (New York: Anchor Books, 1970), 303–4; Thomas Byrne Edsall and Mary D. Edsall, Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (New York: Norton, 1991), 236.

19 Michael Barone, Our Country: The Shaping of America from Roosevelt to Reagan (London: Collier MacMillan, 1990), 596.

20 Podheretz, Norman, “The New American Majority,” Commentary Magazine, 71 (Jan. 1981), 19–28, 20.Google Scholar

21 William Schneider, “Democrats and Republicans, Liberals and Conservatives,” in Seymour Martin Lipset, ed., Party Coalitions in the 1980s (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1981), 229.

22 “How the Seventies Changed America,” American Heritage Magazine, July/August 1991, 39–49, 45.

23 Kenneth S. Baer, Re-inventing Democrats: The Politics of Liberalism from Reagan to Clinton (Lawrence, University of Kansas Press, 2000). This view was also held by Baer's neoconservative contemporaries: “The Challenge to Liberalism,” New Leader Magazine, 6 June 1977, 8–9.

24 Jonathan Bell, The Liberal State on Trial: The Cold War and American Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 273–4; Timothy Nels Thurber, The Politics of Equality: Hubert H. Humphrey and the African American Freedom Struggle (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999).

25 Ladd, Everett Carll, “The Brittle Mandate: Electoral Dealignment and the 1980 Presidential Election,” Political Science Quarterly, 96 (1981), 1–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar; For the rise of the ‘independent’ voter see Norman Nie, Sidney Verba and John Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979); for dealignment see Everett Carll Ladd Jr. and Charles D. Hadley, Transformations of the American Party System: Political Coalitions from the New Deal to the 1970s (New York: Norton, 1975).

26 Steven M. Gillon, Democrat's Dilemma: Walter Mondale and the Liberal Legacy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), 285.

27 “Democratic Voters in Three States Compared,” New York Times, 2 April 1980, A20. For analyses of the campaign that place it in the context of the decline of liberalism see Peter G. Bourne, Jimmy Carter: A Comprehensive Biography from Plains to Post-Presidency (New York: Scribner, 1997), 450; Burton I. Kaufman, The Presidency of James Earl Carter Jnr (Lawrence: Kansas University Press, 1993), 172; Larry M. Bartels, Presidential Primaries and the Dynamics of Public Choice (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 219–236; Seymour Martin Lipset “Party Coalitions and the 1980 Election” in Seymour Martin Lipset, ed., Party Coalitions in the 1980s (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1981), 432–34. The only account of the campaign favourable to Kennedy is Adam Clymer, Edward M. Kennedy: A Biography (New York: Morrow, 1999).

28 “Reckoning with Ted Kennedy This Election Year,” New York Times, 10 April 1972, 35. Nixon, who was obsessed with Kennedy's potential candidacy, placed bugs in the senator's office to discover his intentions. Schulman, The Seventies, 45.

29 “Despite His Lead in Gallup Poll, Kennedy Insists He Won't Run for President in '72,” New York Times, 23 April 1972, 30.

30 “ABC/Harris Poll: Carter Faces Uphill Battle for Democratic Nomination,” 6 August; “ABC/Harris Poll: President Carter's Ratings on Personal Characteristics Spell Trouble,” 6 July 1980, National Organization for Women Records, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University, Box 139.

31 “ABC/Harris Poll: President Carter's Chances of Re-election in 1980 Seem Dim,” 5 July 1979, Clymer Papers, Box 18.

32 ‘State of the Union Message 1978’, Records of the Domestic Policy Staff, Jimmy Carter Library, Atlanta, GA, Box 282. For sympathetic evaluations of Carter's liberalism see Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (London: Collings, 1982); John Dumbrell, The Carter Presidency: A Re-evaluation (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995); Stuart Eizenstat, The Presidency and Domestic Policies of Jimmy Carter, eds. Herbert D. Rosenbaum, Alexej Ugrinsky (London: Greenwood Press, 1994).

33 “The Baron Report: Pressure on Kennedy,” 8 June 1979, National Organization for Women Records, Box 139.

34 “Times/CBS Poll: Presidential Politics,” 9 June 1979, Papers of Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, Box 86.

35 “ABC/Harris Poll: Democratic Party Allegiance Down Sharply since 1976,” 18 June 1979, National Organization for Women Records, Box 194.

36 Ladd, “The Brittle Mandate,” 96.

37 “Kennedy Beats Them Both,” Public Opinion Magazine, Oct./Nov. 1979, 23.

38 “Many Republicans Are Fearful of a Kennedy Candidacy,” New York Times, 24 Oct. 1979, A18.

39 “Reagan for President Poll: Nationwide,” April 1979; “Polling Conducted by Peter Hart on Behalf of Senator Kennedy,” Dec. 1979, Clymer Papers, Box 18.

40 “The Drafting of a President,” New York Magazine, 30 July 1979, 14; Adam Clymer, interview with author, 19 Sept. 2006.

41 “Reality Can Make or Break a Candidate,” New York Times, 6 April 1980, E4.

42 “Washington Watch,” New York Times, 20 Oct. 1979, D2.

43 Memo, Arnold A. Saltzman to Stuart Eizenstat, 7 April 1980, PL-5: Political Affairs Files, Jimmy Carter Library.

44 “The Polls Don't Mean a Thing,” New York Times, 7 October 1979, E19.

45 Memo, Jordan to Carter, 17 July 1979, Records of White House Press Office, Jimmy Carter Library, Box 9.

46 Byron E. Shafer, Quiet Revolution: The Struggle for the Democratic Party and the Shaping of Post-Reform Politics (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1983), 534. McGovern recalls, “I thought he had tremendous qualities of leadership … and he had a commitment to deliver on the kind of policies that we had always fought for.” Interview with the author, 4 Aug. 2006.

47 Robert G. Kaufman, Henry M. Jackson: A Life in Politics (Seattle: University of Washington Press 2000), 444; private interview with Ben Wattenberg, 26 Sept. 2006.

48 “Jackson, Attacking Carter Says Reagan Might Win,” New York Times, 23 May 1980, A14.

49 Political Observer, March 1980, AFT President's Office: Albert Shanker Collection, Walter Reuther Library, Wayne State University, Michigan, Box 70.

50 Letter, Hart to Kathleen Ekart, 15 Oct. 1974, Papers of Senator Gary Hart, University of Colorado Archives, Boulder, CO, Box 53; Hart was “one of the ‘new breed’ in the Democratic Party who balances fiscal needs against social concerns.” Wood Energy Institute briefing paper, 28 Aug. 1980, Hart Papers, Box 55; “Hart's Long March,” New Republic, 2 April 1984, 14–15; Senator Gary Hart, interview with the author, 29 Aug. 2006; Birch Bayh recalled that given his election in 1980 he simply “couldn't afford to get involved with either one.” Interview with Senator Birch Bayh, 3 Sept. 1995, Clymer Papers, Box 3.

51 “San Francisco Homosexuals Find Democrats Now Listen,” New York Times, 4 June 1984, B10.

52 “Kennedy Campaigning Hard,” San Francisco Chronicle, 1 Aug. 1980, 14.

53 “CBS News Special with Roger Mudd,” MR2002-11 Q, 4 Nov. 1979, Kennedy, Edward Moore, 1932–: Audiovisual Archives, JFK Library.

54 “Kennedy Says That Leadership, Not Economic Policy, Is at Issue,” New York Times, 13 Sept. 1979, A1.

55 Peter Hart, interview with the author, 25 Sept. 2006; Mark Segal, interview with the author, 27 Sept. 2006; memo, Gary Orren to Steven Smith, Phil Bakes and Paul Kirk, 6 Jan. 1980; memo, Gary Orren and Peter Hart to Steven Smith, 2 Jan. 1980, Clymer Papers, Box 13.

56 Memo, Hubert L. Harris to Hamilton Jordan, 9 Oct. 1979, Records of the White House Press Office, Jimmy Carter Library, Box 9.

57 “Address of Senator Edward Kennedy to Investment Association of New York,” 27 Sept. 1980, Clymer Papers, Box 26.

58 “Reagan is Striving to Project an Image of Moderation,” New York Times, 14 Jan. 1980, A13.

59 “Ted Kennedy Puts His Show on the Road,” Newsweek, 19 Nov. 1980, 39.

60 “A Disappointing Start,” Boston Globe, 12 Jan. 1980, 4.

61 Elizabeth Drew, Portrait of an Election: The 1980 Presidential Campaign (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981), 62.

62 “ABC/Harris Poll: Public Disappointment with Kennedy as a Campaigner,” 14 Jan. 1980, Clymer Papers, Box 18.

63 Memo, Robert Shrum to Edward Kennedy, 17 Dec. 179, Clymer Papers, Box 13.

64 “As Long as Carter's up He'll Give You a Grant,” New York Times, 21 April 1980, A19.

65 Memo, Jordan to Carter, 17 July 1979, Records of white House Press Office, Jimmy Carter Library, Box 9.

66 “Politics and Pettiness: Carter vs. Kennedy in Fla,” Washington Post, 13 Oct. 1970, 5.

67 Article from the Miami Herald, 12 Oct. 1979, reprinted in Clymer Papers, Box 24.

68 Article by Roger Simon, source unknown, reprinted with attached memo and comments, Jack Watson to Carter, 9 Nov. 1979; memo, Jim Copeland to Carter, 7 Dec. 1979, PL-5: Political Affairs Files, Jimmy Carter Library.

69 “Worry on Inflation Voiced by Kennedy,” New York Times, 14 Oct. 1979, 33.

70 These can be found in the Records of the Office of the Chief of Staff, Jimmy Carter Library, Box 78.

71 “Jimmy Strikes Back,” Newsweek, 8 Oct. 1980, 26–27.

72 “Mystery Still Clouds Tragedy of a Summer Night a Decade Ago,” Washington Post, 8 Dec. 1979, A1; “Kennedy Campaign Woes,” Boston Globe, 8 Feb. 1980, 12.

73 “Byrne Faces Political Wind Shift in St. Patrick's Parade,” Chicago Tribune, 18 March 1980, 14.

74 “TV Ads: An Aid to Some Candidates But Not to Others,” Washington Post, 12 May 1980, A2.

75 “Kennedy against the Wall,” Daily Item, 23 March 1980, 2.

76 “CBS/New York Times Poll: April 1980,” April 1980, Clymer Papers, Box 18.

77 “Stocks Rise on US Bar to Iran,” New York Times, 13 Nov. 1979, D1.

78 “The Campaign Pendulum,” New York Times, 18 Jan. 1980, A12.

79 It lost him the key endorsement of Senator Moynihan of New York, who had been a key neoconservative supporter in 1979: “Moynihan Prefers the Role of a Neutral,” New York Times, 17 March 1980, B1.

80 Memo, Jordan to Carter, undated, Office of the Chief of Staff Files, Jimmy Carter Library, Box 78.

81 “CBS/Times Poll: June 1979,” June 1979; “CBS/Times Poll: February 1980,” Feb. 1980; Hart Dec. 1979 Polls, Dec. 1979, Clymer Papers, Box 18.

82 “Poll Shows Carter Gaining Support on Afghan Moves,” New York Times, 16 Jan. 1980, A1.

83 “ABC/Harris Poll: Carter Now Well Ahead of Kennedy,” 31 Dec. 1979, National Organization for Women Records, Box 139.

84 “CBS/Times Poll: April 1980,” April 1980, Clymer Papers, Box 18.

85 “Iran Wisconsin Primary,” New York Times, 3 April 1980, 36.

86 “CBS/Times Poll: Wisconsin Primary Day Poll,” 1 April 1980, Clymer Papers, Box 18.

87 “Politics: Iran Crimping Race,” 2 Dec. 1980, New York Times, NJ23.

88 Interview with Senator Tom Harkin, undated, Clymer Papers, Box 3.

89 Memo, Landon Butler to Jordan, 21 Dec. 1979; memo, Landon Butler to Hamilton Jordan, 4 Jan. 1980, Office of the Chief of Staff Files, Jimmy Carter Library, Box 78. “Internal polls gave Kennedy the clear edge, not in unions that were backing the challenger, but in unions that were backing the President.” Arch Puddington, Lane Kirkland: Champion of American Labor (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons, 2005), 108.

90 “For Labor, No Place to Go,” Business Week, 31 March 1980, 129.

91 Letter Joseph Vatlentich to Carter, 14 Feb. 1980; letter, Edward J. Carlough to Carter, 22 Jan. 1980; letter, Raymond C. Lith to Carter, 3 Jan. 1980; memo, “Major Labor Unions in California,” undated, Office of the Chief of Staff Files, Jimmy Carter Library, Box 78.

92 “Carter Wins Strong Victory in Iowa,” New York Times, 22 Jan. 1980, A1; “Clear Cut Triumphs,” New York Times, 12 March 1980, A1.

93 “Kennedy's Hope Rely on Chicago and Byrne,” Chicago Tribune, 13 Mar. 1980, 1.

94 “Mayor Byrne, Endorsing Kennedy, Favors a Slate Committed to Him,” New York Times, 31 Oct. 1979, A16.

95 “Primary Issue is Jane Byrne,” Chicago Tribune, 16 Mar. 1980, 1.

96 “Car Whips Kennedy in 3 Caucuses,” Chicago Tribune, 16 Mar. 1980, 5.

97 “CBS/Times Poll: Illinois Primary Day Poll,” 18 March 1980, Clymer Papers, Box 18.

98 Memo, Pat Caddell to Carter/Mondale Presidential Committee, 25 Feb. 1980, Records of White House Press Office Jimmy Carter Library, Box 32.

99 “Kennedy Wins Upset in New York,” New York Times, 26 March 1980, 1.

100 “CBS/Times Poll: New York Primary Day Poll,” 26 March 1980, Clymer Papers, Box 18.

101 “Campaign Report,” New York Times, 16 June 1980, A19.

102 “Jackson Won in New York by Narrowly Based Voting,” New York Times, 8 April 1976, 30; “Democrat's Vote in New York,” New York Times, 27 March 1980, B9.

103 “CBS/Times Poll: New York Primary Day Poll,” 26 March 1980, Clymer Papers, Box 18.

104 “Kennedy and Carter End Efforts in a Close Race in Pennsylvania,” New York Times, 22 April 1980, A1.

105 “Who Votes for Whom and Why,” Philadelphia Inquirer, 23 April 1980, 1.

106 “Kennedy: Why He Lost W. Penna,” Philadelphia Inquirer, 24 April 1980, 6A.

107 “Why the Voters Chose the Candidates They Did,” Philadelphia Inquirer, 23 April 1980, 4A.

108 “Late Surge for Underdogs,” New York Times, 23 April 1980, A1.

109 “The Kennedy Coalition,” New York Times, 25 April 1980, A18. For a rendering of the standard myth of Robert Kennedy's 1968 Democratic primary electoral coalition see Lester David and Irene David, Bobby Kennedy: The Making of a Folk Hero (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1986), 300–16; and for a key reappraisal see Brian Dooley, Robert Kennedy: The Final Years (Keele: Ryburn, 1995), 19.

110 “Most Hispanics Support Kennedy,” Rocky Mountain News, 10 Dec. 1979, 3.

111 Memo, Franklin D. Lopez to Robert Strauss, 8 July 1980; memo, “The 1980 Democratic Primary Mexican American Presidential Preference Vote,” undated, Records of the Office of Hispanic Affairs, Maria Cruz Collection, Jimmy Carter Library, Box 1.

112 Private notes on “Program,” undated; private notes on “Arizona Primary Project,” undated, United Farm Workers: Office of the President Files, Walter Reuther Library, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, Box 34.

113 “Kennedy Wins Arizona Primary,” Tucson Citizen, 14 April 1980, 1.

114 “Kennedy Overtakes Carter,” Arizona Daily Star, 13 April 1980, 1.

115 Private notes on “Results,” undated, UFW President Files, Box 34.

116 “Kennedy Victory a Surprise,” Albuquerque Journal, 5 June 1980, 5.

117 “Carter, Kennedy Divide Delegates in State's Primary,” Albuquerque Journal, 4 June 1980, 1.

118 “Presidential Primary Totals,” Albuquerque Journal, 5 June 1980, 5.

119 “Chavez Ends Fast at Kennedy Rites,” New York Times, 5 June 1972, 65; “Chavez Boosts Kennedy Here,” Arizona Daily Star, 10 April 1980, 1.

120 Senator Fred Harris, interview with the author, 13 Aug. 2006; “Presidential Primary Totals,” Albuquerque Journal, 5 June 1980, 5.

121 “Tuesday's Vote Ends First Round of 1980 Campaigning,” Aberdeen American News, 1 June 1980, 2; “Late Push in S.D. Worked for Kennedy,” Aberdeen News, 4 June 1980, 1.

122 Memo, “The 1980 Democratic Primary Mexican American Presidential Preference Vote,” undated, Records of the Office of Hispanic Affairs, Maria Cruz Files, Jimmy Carter Library, Box 1.

123 “Displeasure with Carter Turned Many to Reagan,” New York Times, 9 Nov. 1980, 28.

124 “ABC/Harris Poll: It's a Mistake to Say Democratic Race is Over,” 7 April 1980, UFW President Files, Box 34.

125 “ABC/Harris Poll: Recent Gains for Kennedy among Democrats,” 10 April 1980, Clymer Papers, Box 18.

126 “Carter Goes over the Top, but Kennedy Will Press on,” Los Angeles Times, 4 June 1980, B1.

127 “Kennedy Won Popular Vote,” New York Times, 5 June 1980, B8.

128 “The Economic Scene: The People Want Controls,” New York Times, 3 Feb 1980, F18.

129 “Poll Finds Protectionist Trend,” New York Times, 27 June 1980, D1.

130 “CBS/Times Poll: Pennsylvania Primary Day Poll,” 22 April 1980, Clymer Papers, Box 18.

131 “A Reporter at Large, 1980: The Democratic Convention” New Yorker, 8 Sept. 1980, 45.

132 “Platform Changes Studied by Kennedy,” New York Times, 28 June 1980, 8.

133 “Carter Endorses '80 Platform with Few Reservations,” New York Times, 14 Aug. 1980, B1.

134 “Backers Roar for Kennedy as He Hails Party's Cause,” New York Times, 13 Aug. 1980, A1.

135 “A Bid to Keep Faith,” New York Times, 13 Aug. 1980, A1.

136 “A Veneer of Unity,” Newsweek, 25 Aug. 1980, 24–30.

137 “ABC/Harris Poll: Carter and Kennedy after the Primaries,” 23 June 1980, Clymer Papers, Box 18; additionally many incumbents facing re-election attempted to escape identification with the President: “Democrats Run Away from Carter Endorsement,” Rocky Mountain News, 17 Aug. 1980, 1.

138 “Now for the Hard Part,” Newsweek, 25 Aug. 1980, 23; “The Shifting Labor Vote,” New York Times, 11 Nov. 1980, B8; “Blue-Collar Democrats Slipping to Reagan,” New York Times, 20 April 1980, 30.

139 “How Americans Swung to Reagan,” US News and World Report, 17 Nov. 1980, 29.

140 “The Collapse of a Coalition: Carter Failed in Groups that Backed Him in '76,” New York Times, 5 Nov. 1980, A1.

141 “Mr Anderson commands the support of the same type of activists who once rang door bells for Eugene McCarthy and George McGovern.” “What is a Conservative?” New York Times, 31 Aug. 1980, SM3; Kennedy backers who switched to Anderson in November 1980 included the New York Liberal Party: “New York's Top Democrats Backing Anderson,” New York Times, 4 July 1980, A7; and the National Organization for Women: “NOW Parley Dominated by Politics,” New York Times, 4 Oct. 1980, 11.

142 “Anderson Says He Will Reconsider Candidacy if Carter is Not Nominee,” New York Times, 1 Aug. 1980, A1.

143 “Anderson Says He Feels No Bitterness,” New York Times, 6 Nov. 1980, A27.

144 Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System, 424; Scammon and Wattenberg, The Real Majority, 59–71.

145 This was certainly the contemporary consensus: “The strongest asset going for Reagan in this fall's election now appears to be the incumbent President … rather than the inherent strengths within the Reagan candidacy itself.” “ABC/Harris Poll: Campaign Issues,” 15 July 1980, National Organization for Women Records, Box 194.

146 “Displeasure with Carter Turned Many to Reagan,” New York Times, 9 Nov. 1980, 28.

147 “Of Kennedy, Carter, the UN and the Money Gap,” Newsweek, 24 March 1980, 9.