Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T21:23:08.949Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

“A New Reality of Harlem”: Imagining the African American Urban Future during the 1960s

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 June 2017

DANIEL MATLIN
DANIEL MATLIN*
Affiliation:
Department of History, King's College London. Email: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Envisioning Harlem's future served as a particularly vivid means of addressing the dilemmas posed by the prospect of desegregation. Should black peoplehood – in part a legacy of oppression and racialization – persist in a post-segregation era? This article calls for greater attention to be paid to the visions of future existence that animated, and were animated by, the black freedom struggles of the 1960s. It explores contrasting architectural reimaginings of Harlem and argues that ideas about existing black places and the nature of their built environment were important factors in shaping commitments to, and idealizations of, both integrationist and black nationalist futures.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of American Studies , Volume 52 , Issue 4 , November 2018 , pp. 991 - 1024
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and British Association for American Studies 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 June Meyer to R. Buckminster Fuller, 20 Sept. 1964, Folder 11, Box 33, June Jordan Papers, MC 513, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, original emphasis. An abridged version appears as Jordan, June, “Letter to R. Buckminster Fuller,” in Jordan, Civil Wars (New York: Touchstone, 1995), 23–28Google Scholar. During the mid-1960s, June Jordan wrote under her married name, June Meyer, before reverting to her maiden name towards the end of the decade. I refer throughout the main text of this article to “June Jordan” while retaining original publication details in citations.

2 June Meyer, “Instant Slum Clearance,” Esquire, April 1965, 109.

3 “Rocky's 125th Street War,” Architectural Forum, 132 (Jan.–Feb. 1970), 42.

4 Architect's Renewal Committee in Harlem, “Position Paper on Reclamation Site #1,” typescript, 8 Aug. 1969, esp. p. 4, Folder 7, Box 7, J. Max Bond Jr. Papers, Department of Drawings and Archives, Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library, Columbia University, New York City.

5 Bradley, Stefan M., Harlem vs. Columbia University: Black Student Power in the Late 1960s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

6 On the complex relationship between community activism and gentrification see Goldstein, Brian D., The Roots of Urban Renaissance: Gentrification and the Struggle over Harlem (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Thurman, Wallace, “Harlem: A Vivid Word Picture of the World's Greatest Negro City” (1927), in The Collected Writings of Wallace Thurman: A Harlem Renaissance Reader, ed. Singh, Amritjit and Scott, Daniel M. III (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2003), 33Google Scholar.

8 On the importance of attending to “dreams” and “the imagination” within African American history see Kelley, Robin D. G., Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2002)Google Scholar. Two valuable studies that address civil rights and black power visions of future social relations are King, Richard H., Civil Rights and the Idea of Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992)Google Scholar; Brown, Scott, Fighting for US: Maulana Karenga, the US Organization, and Black Cultural Nationalism (New York: NYU Press, 2003)Google Scholar. Imagined futures feature prominently in recent scholarship in queer and disability studies; see Kafer, Alison, Feminist, Queer, Crip (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013)Google Scholar; Yekani, Elahe Haschemi, Kilian, Eveline, and Michaelis, Beatrice, eds., Queer Futures: Reconsidering Ethics, Activism, and the Political (London: Routledge, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Among many examples, see Jones, Patrick D., The Selma of the North: Civil Rights Insurgency in Milwaukee (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 169–209Google Scholar; K'Meyer, Tracy, Civil Rights in the Gateway to the South: Louisville, Kentucky, 1945–1980 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009), 111–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 See especially Self, Robert O., American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003)Google Scholar;Woodard, Komozi, A Nation within a Nation: Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) and Black Power Politics (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11 Nikhil Pal Singh's important work Black Is a Country is concerned with recovering the “expansive dreams of freedom” emanating from twentieth-century US black radicalisms. Singh demonstrates the breadth (from Martin Luther King Jr. to the Black Panther Party) of radical dissent from dominant articulations of Americanism that have effaced black peoplehood. As is the case in most scholarship on 1960s black freedom struggles, however, the “visions of communal possibility” that Singh alludes to largely remain implicit in his discussion of black political critiques and ideological formations, rather than being fleshed out as textured, embodied imaginings of future places, communities, and social relations. See Singh, Nikhil Pal, Black Is a Country: Race and the Unfinished Struggle for Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004)Google Scholar, quotations at 4, 44.

12 Of the many potential avenues of a twentieth-century intellectual history of black futures, Afrofuturism (especially as manifested in literary fiction, comic books, and music) has attracted the most sustained scholarly exploration. This body of thought has often projected futures that are temporally and spatially remote from contemporary black urban milieus, frequently involving space travel, space dwelling, and as-yet-non-existent technologies. See, for example, Dery, Mark, “Black to the Future: Interviews with Samuel R. Delany, Greg Tate, and Tricia Rose,” South Atlantic Quarterly, 92, 4 (Fall 1993), 735–78Google Scholar; Nelson, Alondra, “Introduction: Future Texts,” Social Text, 20, 2 (Summer 2002), 1–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Yaszek, Lisa, “Afrofuturism in American Science Fiction,” in Link, Eric Carl and Canavan, Gerry, eds., The Cambridge Companion to American Science Fiction (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 58–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar. While Afrofuturist texts can productively be read as expressions of the civil rights and black power imaginations, my concern here is with imaginings of more spatially and temporally proximate futures: ones explicitly advocated for by their authors, who deemed them to be immediately realizable. This ought not to preclude their consideration as “utopian” (a term Fuller, as will be seen, embraced). For an astute analysis of ARCH's designs as simultaneously “restrain[ed]” and “utopian,” see Brian Goldstein, D., “‘The Search for New Forms’: Black Power and the Making of the Postmodern City,” Journal of American History, 103, 2 (Sept. 2016), 375–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar, quotations at p. 378.

13 The few existing studies of the spatial and architectural dimensions of the 1960s civil rights and black power imaginations include Goldstein, “Search for New Forms”; Goldstein, Roots of Urban Renaissance; Strain, Christopher, “Soul City, North Carolina: Black Power, Utopia, and the African American Dream,” Journal of African American History, 89, 1 (Winter 2004), 57–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tyner, James, The Geography of Malcolm X: Black Radicalism and the Remaking of American Space (New York: Routledge, 2006)Google Scholar. For a longer historical sweep see Nieves, Angel David and Alexander, Leslie M., eds., “We Shall Independent Be”: African American Place Making and the Struggle to Claim Space in the United States (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2008)Google Scholar; Lipsitz, George, How Racism Takes Place (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011)Google Scholar. An emerging theoretical literature in architectural studies relates race to the built environment; see Fields, Darrell Wayne, Architecture in Black (London: Bloomsbury, 2015)Google Scholar.

14 Anderson, Kay J., Vancouver's Chinatown: Racial Discourse in Canada, 1875–1980 (Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press, 1991)Google Scholar; Lipsitz. For entry points into the broader scholarship on place see Withers, Charles W. J., “Place and the ‘Spatial Turn’ in Geography and in History,” Journal of the History of Ideas, 70, 4 (Oct. 2009), 637–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Biondi, Martha, To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 223Google Scholar.

16 Locke, Alain, “Harlem,” Survey Graphic, 6 (March 1925), 629–30, 629Google Scholar; James Weldon Johnson, “The Making of Harlem,” ibid., 635–39, 635. See also Adams, Michael Henry, Harlem Lost and Found: An Architectural and Social History, 1765–1915 (New York: Monacelli Press, 2002)Google Scholar.

17 Lewis, Earl, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), esp. 90–91Google Scholar.

18 Hunton, Eunice Roberta, “Breaking Through,” Survey Graphic, 6, 6 (March 1925), 684Google Scholar. On the harsh social conditions engendered by segregation and obfuscated by Locke and Johnson, see Dorman, Jacob S., “Back to Harlem: Abstract and Everyday Labor during the Harlem Renaissance,” in Ogbar, Jeffrey O. G., ed., The Harlem Renaissance Revisited (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), 74–90Google Scholar.

19 “No Place Like Home,” Time, 31 July 1964, 12.

20 Baldwin, James, “Fifth Avenue, Uptown: A Letter from Harlem” (1960), in Baldwin, Collected Essays, ed. Morrison, Toni (New York: Library of America, 1998), 179Google Scholar.

21 Jones, LeRoi, “City of Harlem” (1962), in Jones, Home: Social Essays (Hopewell, NJ: Ecco Press, 1998), 87Google Scholar.

22 Clark, Kenneth B., Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power (New York: Harper & Row, 1965)Google Scholar; Matlin, Daniel, On the Corner: African American Intellectuals and the Urban Crisis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 “Tear Down the Ghetto,” Village Voice, 23 July 1964, 1.

24 Meyer, “Instant Slum Clearance,”109.

25 Romare Bearden, Evening Meal of Prophet Peterson, 1964, collage, reproduced in Matlin, On the Corner, 198–99. On the (black) sense of loss that could attend desegregation, see Gates, Henry Louis Jr., Colored People: A Memoir (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994), 64–65Google Scholar; Cecelski, David S., Along Freedom Road: Hyde County, North Carolina, and the Fate of Black Schools in the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26 Krim, Seymour, “Ask for a White Cadillac” (1959), in Krim, Missing a Beat: The Rants and Regrets of Seymour Krim, ed. Cohen, Mark (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2010), 115Google Scholar.

27 Miller, Warren, The Siege of Harlem (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964)Google Scholar.

28 Sullivan, James W., “The Negro National Consciousness of LeRoi Jones,” New York Herald Tribune, 31 Oct. 1965, reprinted in Jazz, 5 (Jan. 1966), 10–11Google Scholar.

29 Ralph Ellison, “Harlem Is Nowhere,” Harper's Magazine, 1 Aug. 1964, 54.

30 Baldwin, “Fifth Avenue, Uptown,” 174.

31 Clark, 32–33.

32 Romare Bearden, The Dove, 1964, collage, reproduced in Matlin, On the Corner, 198–99; Martha and the Vandellas, “Dancing in the Street” (LP record; Gordy 7033; 1964); Imamu Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) and Fundi (Billy Abernathy), In Our Terribleness (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970); Gil Scott-Heron, Small Talk at 125th and Lenox (LP record; Flying Dutchman FD 10131; 1970); Miles Davis, On the Corner (LP record; Columbia PC 31906; 1972). See also Ongiri, Amu Abugo, Spectacular Blackness: The Cultural Politics of the Black Power Movement and the Search for a Black Aesthetic (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2010), 12, 23, 93Google Scholar.

33 Smethurst, James Edward, The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005)Google Scholar. On ARCH and black power urbanism see Goldstein, “Search for New Forms,” esp. 391.

34 Kinloch, Valerie, June Jordan: Her Life and Letters (Westport, CT: Prager, 2006), esp. 49–94Google Scholar; Jordan, June, New Days: Poems of Exile and Return, 1970–1972 (New York: Emerson Hall, 1974)Google Scholar.

35 Jordan, “Letter to R. Buckminster Fuller,” 23.

36 Kinloch, 1, 8, 9.

37 Jordan, June, “Letter to Michael,” in Jordan, Civil Wars, 16; The Cool World, dir. Shirley Clarke (Wiseman Film Productions, 1963)Google Scholar. The film adapted the novel by Miller, Warren, The Cool World (Boston: Little, Brown, 1959)Google Scholar.

38 June Jordan, “One Way of Beginning This Book,” in Jordan, Civil Wars, xiv–xxv.

39 Ibid., xxvii.

40 Sieden, Lloyd Steven, Buckminster Fuller's Universe (New York: Plenum, 1989), 405Google Scholar; Fuller, R. Buckminster, No More Secondhand God, and Other Writings (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1963), 84–117Google Scholar.

41 Calvin Tomkins, “Profiles: In the Outlaw Area,” New Yorker, 8 Jan. 1966, 38; Wood, Linda Sargent, A More Perfect Union: Holistic Worldviews and the Transformation of American Culture after World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 57CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

42 June Meyer to Cyrilly Abels, 22 July 1964, Folder 10, Box 82, Jordan Papers.

43 June Jordan, “Foreword,” in Jordan, Civil Wars, xiii.

44 June Meyer to R. Buckminster Fuller, 1 March 1967, Folder 11, Box 33, Jordan Papers.

45 R. Buckminster Fuller to Nathaniel A. Owings, 6 March 1969, Folder 12, Box 33, Jordan Papers.

46 Chu, Hsiao-Yun and Trujillo, Robert G., eds., New Views on R. Buckminster Fuller (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Hays, K. Michael and Miller, Dana, eds., Buckminster Fuller: Starting with the Universe (New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 2008)Google Scholar; Pawley, Martin, Buckminster Fuller (London: Grafton, 1992)Google Scholar.

47 Fish, Cheryl J., “Place, Emotion, and Environmental Justice in Harlem: June Jordan and Buckminster Fuller's 1965 ‘Architextual’ Collaboration,” Discourse, 29, 2–3 (Spring & Fall 2007), 330–45, 332Google Scholar; Alston, Vermonja R., “‘Moving towards Home’: The Politics and Poetics of Environmental Justice in the Work of June Jordan,” Interdisciplinary Literary Studies, 7, 1 (Fall 2005), 36–48, 39Google Scholar; Kinloch, June Jordan, 35–36.

48 Fish, 330–45; Alston, 36–48.

49 Meyer, “Instant Slum Clearance,” 109, 111.

50 Ibid., 109.

51 Clark, Dark Ghetto, esp. 81; Brown, Claude, Manchild in the Promised Land (New York: Macmillan, 1965)Google Scholar; Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, “The Negro Family: The Case for National Action” (1965), in Rainwater, Lee and Yancey, William L., eds., The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy: A Trans-action Social Science and Public Policy Report (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967), 41–124Google Scholar, esp. 43.

52 Himes, Chester, “Harlem: An American Cancer,” Présence africaine (English edn), 17, 1 (First Quarter 1963), 46–75Google Scholar.

53 Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited, Inc. (HARYOU), Youth in the Ghetto: A Study of the Consequences of Powerlessness and a Blueprint for Change (New York: HARYOU, 1964), 156Google Scholar. On 1960s pathologism and its critics see Matlin, Daniel, “Who Speaks for Harlem? Kenneth B. Clark, Albert Murray, and the Controversies of Black Urban Life,” Journal of American Studies, 46, 4 (Nov. 2012), 875–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Geary, Daniel, Beyond Civil Rights: The Moynihan Report and Its Legacy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. By the 1970s, Jordan would be sharply critical of pathologist characterizations of black families; see ibid., 139–40.

54 Meyer, “Instant Slum Clearance,” 111, 109, emphasis added.

55 Ibid., 109, 111. Cheryl Fish remarks in passing that “once the new structures stood completed, the old would be razed,” but does not reflect on the magnitude or implications of this demolition; see Fish, 340.

56 [June Jordan], “SKYRISE FOR harlem [second draft?]” n.d., draft typescript, Folder 23, Box 61, Jordan Papers; [June Jordan], “SKYRISE FOR harlem … first draft,” n.d., draft typescript, ibid. This passage (which varies slightly between the two drafts) was omitted from the shorter, published essay. On “maximum feasible participation” see Immerwahr, Daniel, Thinking Small: The United States and the Lure of Community Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 132–63Google Scholar.

57 R. Buckminster Fuller and June Meyer interview by Patricia Marx (hereafter “Marx interview”), 13 April 1965, audiotape Reel 76, Box 29, R. Buckminster Fuller Papers, Department of Special Collections, Stanford University Libraries, Stanford, CA.

58 Meyer, “Instant Slum Clearance,” 111.

59 Marx interview; Meyer, “Instant Slum Clearance,” 111.

60 Alexis Pauline Gumbs, “This Instant: June Jordan and a Black Feminist Poetics of Architecture,” online posting, 22 July 2013, at www.scribd.com/doc/155271148/This-Instant-June-Jordan-and-a-Black-Feminist-Poetics-of-Architecture. The dangers faced by black women on Harlem's streets had received literary exploration in Petry, Ann, The Street (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1946)Google Scholar. Recent work on feminist mobilizations of the 1960s and 1970s emphasizes space and place as catalyzing and shaping the forms of activism; see Enke, Anne, Finding the Movement: Sexuality, Contested Space, and Feminist Activism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

61 Meyer to Fuller, 20 Sept. 1964.

62 Quoted in Vidler, Anthony, Warped Space: Art, Architecture, and Anxiety in Modern Culture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002), 60Google Scholar.

63 Jordan, “One Way of Beginning This Book,” xxv. A major architectural history of New York City summarizes “Skyrise” as “a supercolossal version of Le Corbusier's cataclysmic plans of the 1920s for rebuilding Paris”; see Stern, Robert A. M., Mellins, Thomas, and Fishman, David, New York 1960: Architecture and Urbanism between the Second World War and the Bicentennial (New York: Monacelli Press, 1995), 858Google Scholar.

64 Tucker, Priscilla, “Poor People's Plan,” Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, 27 (Jan. 1969), 265–69, 267CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Black, W. Joseph, “A Farsighted Study and Some Blind Spots,” Architectural Forum, 129 (Dec. 1968), 44–49, 49Google Scholar.

65 Harris, LaShawn, Sex Workers, Psychics, and Numbers Runners: Black Women in New York City's Underground Economy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2016), 30–33Google Scholar; Corbould, Clare, “Streets, Sounds and Identity in Interwar Harlem,” Journal of Social History, 40, 4 (Summer 2007), 859–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the persistence of Harlem street rallies and street-corner oratory into the 1950s and 1960s see Marable, Manning, Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (London: Allen Lane, 2011), 109, 170–71Google Scholar. In 1964, Jazzmobile's flatbed trucks turned Harlem's streets into musical auditoria; see Arnold-Forster, Tom, “Dr. Billy Taylor, ‘America's Classical Music,’ and the Role of the Jazz Ambassador,” Journal of American Studies, 51, 1 (Feb. 2017), 117–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

66 Fish, “Place, Emotion, and Environmental Justice in Harlem,” 335.

67 Ibid. On Jane Jacobs and Robert Moses see Zipp, Samuel, Manhattan Projects: The Rise and Fall of Urban Renewal in Cold War New York (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

68 Jacobs, Jane, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1961)Google Scholar. For a critique of the tendency to ascribe the architecture of US urban renewal to Le Corbusier's influence see Bacon, Mardges, Le Corbusier in America: Travels in the Land of the Timid (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

69 Fish, 331.

70 Klemek, Christopher, The Transatlantic Collapse of Urban Renewal: Postwar Urbanism from New York to Berlin (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2011), 3Google Scholar; Zipp, 21.

71 Fish, 331; Gans, Herbert J., The Urban Villagers: Group and Class in the Life of Italian-Americans (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1962)Google Scholar.

72 Zipp, 253–350, esp. 303.

73 On Jordan's recollections that she had suffered physical brutality at the hands of her parents see Kinloch, June Jordan, 16-19.

74 June Jordan, untitled typescript, n.d., Folder 1, Box 75, Jordan Papers, emphasis added; Meyer to Abels, 22 July 1964.

75 June Meyer to R. Buckminster Fuller, 18 June 1964, personal collection of Shoji Sadao.

76 Marx interview.

77 Ibid.

78 Kassler, Elizabeth, “New Towns, New Cities,” in Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), The New City: Architecture and Urban Renewal (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1967), 9–21, 9Google Scholar.

79 Marx interview; “Playboy Interview: R. Buckminster Fuller,” Playboy, Feb. 1972, 202.

80 Meyer to Fuller, 18 June 1964.

81 Marx interview.

82 Meyer to Fuller, 20 Sept. 1964.

83 June Jordan, “Civil Wars,” in Jordan, Civil Wars, 180.

84 Kinloch, June Jordan, 27.

85 Esquire, April 1965, 5.

86 Tomkins, “Profiles,” 95. See also Howard P. Segal, “R. Buckminster Fuller: America's Last Genuine Utopian?”, in Chu and Trujillo, New Views on R. Buckminster Fuller, 36–52.

87 Marx interview.

88 [R. Buckminster Fuller] to Guggenheim Foundation, 5–6 Feb. 1971, Folder 7, Box 246, Series 2, Dymaxion Chronofile, Fuller Papers.

89 MoMA, The New City.

90 Meyer to Fuller, 1 March 1967.

91 Lopen, Andrea, “Harlem's Streetcorner Architects,” Architectural Forum, 123 (Dec. 1965), 50Google Scholar; Hatch, Richard, “Urban Renewal in Harlem,” Zodiac: A Review of Contemporary Architecture (Italy), 17 (1967), 198Google Scholar; Stern, Mellins, and Fishman, New York 1960, 858; “ARCH On the March,” Architectural Forum, 126 (June 1967), 84–85Google Scholar.

92 Hatch, C. Richard, “The Museum of Modern Art Discovers Harlem,” Architectural Forum, 126 (March 1967), 38–47Google Scholar; “Instant Slum Clearance Proposed for Harlem Area,” New York Amsterdam News, 27 March 1965, 14.

93 Hatch, “Museum of Modern Art Discovers Harlem,” 47, 40.

94 Ibid., 42, 47; MoMA, 24, 30. For an insightful analysis of the exhibition see Wilson, Mabel O., “Black in Harlem: Architects, Racism and the City,” in Golden, Thelma, ed., harlemworld: Metropolis as Metaphor (New York: The Studio Museum in Harlem, 2003), 27–37Google Scholar.

95 Hatch, “Urban Renewal in Harlem,” 197.

96 ARCH explained the change as growing “out of the ideology that black professionals and local resident[s] must participate in the rebuilding of their own communities”; see “Architects in the Neighborhood,” Partisan Planning (Nov. 1972), 8, Folder 2, Box 6, Christiane C. Collins Collection, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York City.

97 Architects’ Renewal Committee in Harlem, Tenant Action, 3rd edn (New York: ARCH, 1973)Google Scholar, Folder 7, Box 7, Bond Papers; Architects’ Renewal Committee in Harlem, The Case for a Harlem High School (New York: ARCH, 1969)Google Scholar, ibid.; Hatch, “Urban Renewal in Harlem,” 198; Goodman, Percival and Goodman, Paul, Communitas: Means of Livelihood and Ways of Life (New York: Vintage Books, 1960; first published 1947)Google Scholar. On advocacy planning and “New Left urbanism” see Klemek, Transatlantic Collapse of Urban Renewal, 187–201.

98 Tucker, “Poor People's Plan,” 265.

99 On Bond in Ghana see Briggs, Jimmie, “J. Max Bond, Building a 40-Year Reputation in Design,” Crisis, 111, 5 (Sept.–Oct. 2004), 43–44, 44Google Scholar.

100 Tucker, 265.

101 Ibid., 266–67. See also Emblidge, David, “Rallying Point: Lewis Michaux's National Memorial African Bookstore,” Publishing Research Quarterly, 24, 4 (Dec. 2008), 267–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

102 Architects’ Renewal Committee in Harlem, Housing in Harlem: Part I: The Potential for Rehabilitation and Vest Pocket New Construction (New York: ARCH, 1967), 10Google Scholar, Folder 9, Box 7, Bond Papers.

103 Architect's Renewal Committee in Harlem, “Position Paper on Reclamation Site #1,” 1, 4.

104 Ibid., 6, 10.

105 Architects’ Renewal Committee in Harlem, West Harlem–Morningside: A Community Proposal (New York: ARCH and West Harlem Community Organization, 1968), 3, 28–29, 31, 35–40, 33Google Scholar.

106 Architects’ Renewal Committee in Harlem, East Harlem Triangle Plan (New York: ARCH, 1968), unpaginated preface, 3, 5, 7–8, 26, 9, 36, 46–47.

107 “ARCH On the March,” 84–85; Klemek, Transatlantic Collapse of Urban Renewal, 200, 3, 243.

108 Untitled curriculum vitae, n.d. (c.1973), Folder 1, Box 1, Joseph Black Papers, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York City; Joseph Black Papers finding aid, available at http://archives.nypl.org/scm/20545. Black praised ARCH for demonstrating how architecture could be “responsive to the needs of the community”; see W. Joseph Black, “Visions of Harlem,” draft typescript, n.d., p. 53, Folder 1, Box 2, Black Papers.

109 Black, W. Joseph, “The Renewed Negro and Urban Renewal,” Architectural Forum, 128 (June 1968), 63Google Scholar.

110 W. Joseph Black, “Visions of Harlem,” M.Sc. dissertation, Columbia University, 1971; Joseph Black Papers finding aid; Black, “Visions of Harlem,” draft typescript, n.d., p. 48, Folder 3, Box 2, Black Papers; Black, “Visions of Harlem,” draft typescript, n.d., p. 80, Folder 1, Box 2, ibid.

111 W. Joseph Black interview by Esther G. Rolick, 1971, audiotape, Esther G. Rolick Papers, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.

112 Black, “Visions of Harlem,” draft typescript, pp. 50–52, Folder 1, Box 2, Black Papers.

113 Black, “Renewed Negro and Urban Renewal,” 61, 66; W. Joseph Black, untitled typescript, n.d., Folder 9, Box 1, Black Papers; Black, “Future,” typescript, n.d., pp. 3, 7, Folder 4, Box 2, ibid.

114 Black, “Future,” 13.

115 Locke, “Harlem,” 629; Johnson, “Making of Harlem,” 635.

116 Jones, “City of Harlem,” 88.