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Modernising Violence and Social Change in the Spanish Sahara (1957–1975)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 April 2020

Enrique Bengochea Tirado  and
Francesco Correale
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Abstract

In Spain's last colony, Western Sahara, both efforts by the colonial power to stimulate development and the negative impacts of colonisation intensified between the end of the Ifni-Sahara War (1957–58) and the Spanish withdrawal in 1975. Spanish economical and geopolitical interests triggered an important industrial and urban development of the territory. Cities such as Laayoune, Villa Cisneros, Smara, and the Bou Craa phosphate deposits were to showcase Spanish modernising colonial policies.

However, the effects of war, the control of colonial frontiers, and severe droughts during the 1960s strongly affected Sahrawi society. In this context, the Spanish colonial state developed new forms of control over the Sahrawi population, which included the progressive (forced) settling of nomadic people around military posts and Spanish cities, bringing about the adoption of new economic paradigms. Not only did the Francoist government distribute subsidies, both money and goods; it furthermore implemented policies aimed at controlling the Sahrawi way of life, particularly in the areas of hygiene, education, and gender relations. The essay analyses these “carrot-and-stick” strategies at the intersection of colonial control and forced sedentarisation with regard to the implementation of a market-oriented economy in Western Sahara.

Keywords

Western SaharaSpanish colonialism in AfricaIfni-Sahara WarSección FemeninaSahrawi nationalism
Type
Articles
Information
Itinerario , Volume 44 , Special Issue 1: Violence, Migration, and Gender in the Portuguese and Spanish-Speaking World. Local Impacts, Global Processes, and the Echoes of Empire, 1945–2019 , April 2020 , pp. 33 - 54
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Research Institute for History, Leiden University

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Footnotes

*

Enrique Bengochea Tirado is a postdoctoral fellow at the CRIA in the New University of Lisbon and is interested in gender, colonial policies, and imperialism in Spanish history. More specifically, his work examines the role of Sección Femenina in the Spanish colonisation of Western Sahara. Francesco Correale has a PhD in history from the Aix-Marseille University, Aix-en-Provence (France), and works at the National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) of France as an Ingénieur de recherche en analyse des sources for the laboratory CITERES; he is also a member of the research group Estudios Poscoloniales: Sáhara Occidental at the Autonomous University of Madrid. He is co-responsible, with A. López Bargados of the University of Barcelona, for the project Rashōmon in the Atlantic Sahara: Memories and Places in the ‘Ifni-Sahara War’ (1956–1958), funded by the Gerda Henkel Foundation of Düsseldorf, and is PI of the project “Coloniality, Confinement and Order: Colonial and Postcolonial Forms of Internment in and Around the Mediterranean,” funded by MSH Val de Loire of Tours.

References

Bibliography

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Cruz Tizón, Tony. “Encuesta pública en torno a nuestro pabellón.” Sahara, 6 June 1965.Google Scholar
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Sahara, Provincia española. Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Africanos (CSIC), 1966.Google Scholar
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Awad, Bahía Mahmud. “Generaciones Literarias: Intelectualidad y Política en el Sahara Occidental, 1850–1975.” Les Cahiers d'EMAM 24–25 (2015): 29–54.Google Scholar
Balandier, Georges. “The Colonial Situation: A Theoretical Approach.” In Social Change: The Colonial Situation, ed. by Wallerstein, Immanuel, 34–61. New York: Wiley, 1966 [1951].Google Scholar
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Barona, Claudia. Los hijos de la nube. Estructura y vicisitudes del Sahara Español desde 1958 hasta la debacle. Madrid: Langre, 2009.Google Scholar
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Bonneuil, Christophe. “Development as Experiment: Science and State Building in Late Colonial and Postcolonial Africa .” Osiris 15 (2000): 258–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campos, Alicia and Trasosmontes, Violeta. “Recursos naturales y segunda ocupación colonial del Sáhara español, 1959–1975.” Cahiers de l'EMAM 24–25 (2015): 107–29.Google Scholar
Caratini, Sophie. “A Propos du Mariage ‘Arabe.’ Discours Endogame et Pratiques Exogames: l'exemple des Rgaybat du nord-ouest saharien.” L'Homme 29:110 (1989): 30–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caratini, Sophie. “Du modèle aux pratiques: Ambivalence de la filiation et de l'alliance chez les Rgaybat de l'ouest-saharien.” L'Homme 35:133 (1995): 33–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caratini, Sophie. “La Prison Du Temps. Les mutations sociales à l’œuvre dans les camps de réfugiés sahraouis. Première partie: la voie de la révolution.” Afrique Contemporaine 221:1 (2007): 153–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caratini, Sophie. Les Rgaybat (1610–1931). Paris: Harmatan, 1989.Google Scholar
Correale, Francesco. “Islàm, costruzioni istituzionali e ‘democrazia.’ Le origini storiche del Marocco post-coloniale.” Meridione. Sud e Nord del Mondo 4:1 (2006): 166–202.Google Scholar
Correale, Francesco. “La narración de la historia en situación de crisis. Reivindicaciones y contradicciones en la construcción memorial saharaui.” Les Cahiers d'EMAM 24–25 (2015): 151–68.Google Scholar
Correale, Francesco. “La ‘última guerra colonial’ de España y la literatura militar entre memoria y conocimiento.” In 7° Congresso Ibérico de Estudos Africanos. 50 anos das independências africanas: desafios para a modernidade. Actas [Em linha], Lisboa: CEA, 2010, online: http: //hdl.handle.net/10071/2326.Google Scholar
Correale, Francesco. “Le Sahara espagnol: histoire et mémoire du rapport colonial. Un essai d'interprétation.” In La question du pouvoir en Afrique du Nord et de l'Ouest, edited by Caratini, Sophie, vol. 1: 103–52. Paris: Harmattan, 2009.Google Scholar
Correale, Francesco, and Bargados, Alberto López. “Rashōmon au Sahara Occidental: Perspectives, Contradictions et Défis dans l'interprétation du Conflit de 1956–1958.” In Culture et Politique dans l'Ouest Saharien. Arts, Activisme et Etat dans un Espace de Conflits, edited by Boulay, Sébastien and Freire, Francisco, 211–41. Igé: L'Etrave, 2017.Google Scholar
Cueto, Adolfo. “Portugal y su imperio frente a la descolonización, 1945–1962.” Espacio, Tiempo y Forma 5:23 (2011): 161–200.Google Scholar
Dalmases, Pablo-Ignacio. El Sahara Occidental en la bibliografía española y el discurso colonial. PhD diss. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Barcelona, 2013.Google Scholar
Darwin, John. “What Was the Late Colonial State?” Itinerario 23:3–4 (1999): 73–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diego Aguirre, José Ramón. Guerra en el Sáhara. Madrid: Istmo, 1991.Google Scholar
Diego Aguirre, José Ramón. La última guerra colonial de España. Ifni-Sáhara (1957–1958). Málaga: Algazara, 2008.Google Scholar
Juliano, Dolores. La causa saharaui y las mujeres. “Siempre hemos sido muy libres.” Barcelona: Icaria, 1998.Google Scholar
Fernández-Aceytuno, Mariano. Ifni y Sáhara, una encrucijada en la historia de España. Dueñas: Simancas editores, 2001.Google Scholar
Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, Elena. “‘Ideal’ Refugee Women and Gender Equality Mainstreaming in the Sahrawi Refugee Camps: ‘Good Practice’ for Whom?” Refugee Survey Quarterly 29:2 (2010): 64–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fink, Liz. “Institutional Terra Non Firma: Representative Democracy and the Chieftaincy in French West Africa.” In France's Modernising Mission: Citizenship, Welfare and the Ends of Empire, ed. by Naylor, Ed, 31–58. Palgrave: London, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García, Alejandro. Historias del Sahara: lo mejor y lo peor de los mundos. Madrid: La Catarata, 2001.Google Scholar
Geschiere, Peter. “Chiefs and Colonial Rule in Cameroon: Inventing Chieftaincy, French and British Style.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 63:2 (1993): 151–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gimeno Martín, Juan Carlos. “Ambivalencia y orden colonial español en el Sahara Occidental: (1969–1973).” Revista Andaluza de Antropología 5 (2013): 151–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gozálvez Pérez, Vicente. “Descolonización y migraciones desde el África Española. 1956–1975.” Investigaciones Geográficas 12 (1994): 45–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodges, Tony. Western Sahara. The Roots of a Desert War. Westport, Conn: L. Hill, 1986.Google Scholar
Isidoros, Konstantina. “The Silencing of Unifying Tribes: The Colonial Construction of Tribe and Its ‘Extraordinary Leap’ to Nascent Nation-State Formation in Western Sahara.” Journal of the Anthropological Society 7:2 (2015): 168–90.Google Scholar
Jerónimo, Miguel Bandeira. “Repressive Developmentalism: Idioms, Repertoires, and Trajectories in Late Colonialism.” The Oxford Handbook of the Ends of Empire, ed. by Thomas, Martin and Thompson, Andrew. Oxford: Oxford University Press, https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198713197.013.40.Google Scholar
Lewis, Joanna. Empire State-Building: War and Welfare in Kenya 1925–52. London: James Currey, 2000.Google Scholar
Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. London: Routledge, 1998.Google Scholar
López Bargados, Alberto. Arenas coloniales. Los Awlad Dalim ante la colonización franco española del Sahara. Barcelona, Bellaterra, 2003.Google Scholar
López Bargados, Alberto. “El Sahara ante su espejo: poéticas del punto muerto.” Les Cahiers d'EMAM 24–25 (2015): 133–50.Google Scholar
Louit, Michel Ivan. Ecouvillon? Discrète opération de maintien de l'ordre franco-espagnole. Sahara Occidental 1957–1958. Paris: Marsouins et Méharistes, 2009.Google Scholar
MacMaster, Neil. Burning the Veil: The Algerian War and the “Emancipation” of Muslim Women, 1954–62. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Marín Ferrer, Emilio. Atlas ilustrado. Ifni, Sáhara, Guinea. Ultimas colonias. Madrid: Susaeta Ediciones, 2014.Google Scholar
Martin-Márquez, Susan. Disorientations: Spanish Colonialism in Africa and the Performance of Identity. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morillas, Javier. Sahara Occidental, desarrollo y subdesarrollo. Madrid: El Dorado, 1988.Google Scholar
Robinson, Ronald. “Non-European Foundations of European Imperialism. Sketch for a Theory of Collaboration.” In Studies in the Theory of Imperialism, ed. by Owen, Roger and Sutcliffe, Bob, 117–42. London: Longman, 1972.Google Scholar
Robles Picón, Juan Ignacio, et al. “La poesía saharaui en el nacimiento de la conciencia nacional.” Les Cahiers d'EMAM 24–25 (2015): 55–76.Google Scholar
Rodríguez Esteban, José, and Timón, Diego Barrado. “Los procesos de urbanización en el Sahara español (1884–1975): un componente esencial del proyecto colonial.” Les Cahiers d'EMAM 24–25 (2015): 85–103.Google Scholar
Rodríguez Jiménez, José Luis. Agonía, traición, huida: El final del Sahara español. Barcelona: Crítica, 2015.Google Scholar
San Martin, Pablo. Western Sahara: The Refugee Nation. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Segato, Rita Laura. “Género y colonialidad: en busca de claves de lectura y de un vocabulario estratégico descolonial.” In Feminismos y poscolonialidad: descolonizando el feminismo desde y en America Latina, ed. by Bidaseca, Karina, 17–47. Buenos Aires: Godot, 2011.Google Scholar
Stucki, Andreas. “¿Españolizar desde la raíz? La formación de una élite femenina de cooperación en el ‘pequeño imperio español,’ c. 1960–1975.” Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies 17: 4 (2016): 343–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tejero Molina, Juan. El Sahara Español de la “A” a la “Z.” 2 vols. Madrid: Torres de Papel, 2013–2014.Google Scholar
Torres García, Ana. La Guerra de las Arenas. Conflicto entre Marruecos y Argelia durante la Guerra Fría (1963). Barcelona: Editorial Bellaterra, 2012.Google Scholar
Vidal Guardiola, Lorenzo. Ifni, 1957–1958: la prensa y la guerra que nunca existió. Madrid: Almena, 2006.Google Scholar
Walter, Dierk. Colonial Violence: European Empires and the Use of Force. London: Hurst, 2017.Google Scholar
Zade, Mohammed. Résistance et Armée de Libération au Maroc (1947–1956). De l'action politique à la lutte armée, rupture ou continuité? Rabat: Haut-Commissariat aux Anciens Résistants et Anciens Membres de l'Armée de Libération, Editions Kawtar, 2006.Google Scholar
Zunes, Stephen, and Mundy, Jacob. Western Sahara: War, Nationalism, and Conflict Irresolution. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Archivo General de la Administración, Alcalá de Henares, Spain (AGA):Google Scholar
- Sección 3 (Cultura), Fondo 51.19 (Sección Femenina de Sáhara, Ifni, Región Ecuatorial)Google Scholar
- Sección 15 (África), Fondo 24 (Gobierno General del Sahara)Google Scholar
Archivo General Militar de Ávila, Spain (AGMAV):Google Scholar
- Sección 1.2 (Instituciones de la Administración Territorial), Fondo 1.2.3 (Capitanías y Comandancias Generales)Google Scholar
Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid, Spain (RAH):Google Scholar
- Archivo Documental de “Nueva Andadura,” Tercera Etapa, Serie Azul (NA)Google Scholar
Al Fāsi, Allāl. Livre rouge avec documentaires. Tanger: Peretti, 1961.Google Scholar
Alonso del Barrio, Jose Enrique. Las Tribus del Sahara. Laayoune: Servicio de publicaciones del Gobierno del Sahara, 1973.Google Scholar
Caro Baroja, Julio. Estudios Saharianos. Madrid: ONO, 1990 [1955].Google Scholar
Cruz Tizón, Tony. “Encuesta pública en torno a nuestro pabellón.” Sahara, 6 June 1965.Google Scholar
Gobierno General del Sahara. Censo 1974. Laayoune: Servicio de Registro de Población, 1975.Google Scholar
Sahara, Provincia española. Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Africanos (CSIC), 1966.Google Scholar
United Nations. The Report of the Special Committee on the Situation with Regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples. New York: United Nations, 1977.Google Scholar
Allan, Joanna. “Imagining Saharawi Women: The Question of Gender in POLISARIO Discourse.” The Journal of North African Studies 15:2 (2010): 189–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allan, Joanna. Silenced Resistance: Women, Dictatorships, and Genderwashing in Western Sahara and Equatorial Guinea. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Awad, Bahía Mahmud. “Generaciones Literarias: Intelectualidad y Política en el Sahara Occidental, 1850–1975.” Les Cahiers d'EMAM 24–25 (2015): 29–54.Google Scholar
Balandier, Georges. “The Colonial Situation: A Theoretical Approach.” In Social Change: The Colonial Situation, ed. by Wallerstein, Immanuel, 34–61. New York: Wiley, 1966 [1951].Google Scholar
Bárbulo, Tomás. Historia prohibida del Sahara Occidental. Las claves del conflicto que condiciona las relaciones entre España y el Magreb. Madrid: Destino, 2002.Google Scholar
Barona, Claudia. Los hijos de la nube. Estructura y vicisitudes del Sahara Español desde 1958 hasta la debacle. Madrid: Langre, 2009.Google Scholar
Bengochea Tirado, Enrique. Entrega, hogar e imperio: La Sección Femenina en la provincia de Sahara. Barcelona: Bellaterra, 2019.Google Scholar
Bengochea Tirado, Enrique. “Las mujeres saharauis a través de la Sección Femenina. Un sujeto colonizado.” Arenal 19:1 (2012): 143–59.Google Scholar
Bengochea Tirado, Enrique. Políticas imperiales y género. La Sección Femenina en la Provincia de Sahara (1961–1975). PhD diss., Universitat de València. Valencia, 2016.Google Scholar
Bonneuil, Christophe. “Development as Experiment: Science and State Building in Late Colonial and Postcolonial Africa .” Osiris 15 (2000): 258–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campos, Alicia and Trasosmontes, Violeta. “Recursos naturales y segunda ocupación colonial del Sáhara español, 1959–1975.” Cahiers de l'EMAM 24–25 (2015): 107–29.Google Scholar
Caratini, Sophie. “A Propos du Mariage ‘Arabe.’ Discours Endogame et Pratiques Exogames: l'exemple des Rgaybat du nord-ouest saharien.” L'Homme 29:110 (1989): 30–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caratini, Sophie. “Du modèle aux pratiques: Ambivalence de la filiation et de l'alliance chez les Rgaybat de l'ouest-saharien.” L'Homme 35:133 (1995): 33–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caratini, Sophie. “La Prison Du Temps. Les mutations sociales à l’œuvre dans les camps de réfugiés sahraouis. Première partie: la voie de la révolution.” Afrique Contemporaine 221:1 (2007): 153–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caratini, Sophie. Les Rgaybat (1610–1931). Paris: Harmatan, 1989.Google Scholar
Correale, Francesco. “Islàm, costruzioni istituzionali e ‘democrazia.’ Le origini storiche del Marocco post-coloniale.” Meridione. Sud e Nord del Mondo 4:1 (2006): 166–202.Google Scholar
Correale, Francesco. “La narración de la historia en situación de crisis. Reivindicaciones y contradicciones en la construcción memorial saharaui.” Les Cahiers d'EMAM 24–25 (2015): 151–68.Google Scholar
Correale, Francesco. “La ‘última guerra colonial’ de España y la literatura militar entre memoria y conocimiento.” In 7° Congresso Ibérico de Estudos Africanos. 50 anos das independências africanas: desafios para a modernidade. Actas [Em linha], Lisboa: CEA, 2010, online: http: //hdl.handle.net/10071/2326.Google Scholar
Correale, Francesco. “Le Sahara espagnol: histoire et mémoire du rapport colonial. Un essai d'interprétation.” In La question du pouvoir en Afrique du Nord et de l'Ouest, edited by Caratini, Sophie, vol. 1: 103–52. Paris: Harmattan, 2009.Google Scholar
Correale, Francesco, and Bargados, Alberto López. “Rashōmon au Sahara Occidental: Perspectives, Contradictions et Défis dans l'interprétation du Conflit de 1956–1958.” In Culture et Politique dans l'Ouest Saharien. Arts, Activisme et Etat dans un Espace de Conflits, edited by Boulay, Sébastien and Freire, Francisco, 211–41. Igé: L'Etrave, 2017.Google Scholar
Cueto, Adolfo. “Portugal y su imperio frente a la descolonización, 1945–1962.” Espacio, Tiempo y Forma 5:23 (2011): 161–200.Google Scholar
Dalmases, Pablo-Ignacio. El Sahara Occidental en la bibliografía española y el discurso colonial. PhD diss. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Barcelona, 2013.Google Scholar
Darwin, John. “What Was the Late Colonial State?” Itinerario 23:3–4 (1999): 73–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diego Aguirre, José Ramón. Guerra en el Sáhara. Madrid: Istmo, 1991.Google Scholar
Diego Aguirre, José Ramón. La última guerra colonial de España. Ifni-Sáhara (1957–1958). Málaga: Algazara, 2008.Google Scholar
Juliano, Dolores. La causa saharaui y las mujeres. “Siempre hemos sido muy libres.” Barcelona: Icaria, 1998.Google Scholar
Fernández-Aceytuno, Mariano. Ifni y Sáhara, una encrucijada en la historia de España. Dueñas: Simancas editores, 2001.Google Scholar
Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, Elena. “‘Ideal’ Refugee Women and Gender Equality Mainstreaming in the Sahrawi Refugee Camps: ‘Good Practice’ for Whom?” Refugee Survey Quarterly 29:2 (2010): 64–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fink, Liz. “Institutional Terra Non Firma: Representative Democracy and the Chieftaincy in French West Africa.” In France's Modernising Mission: Citizenship, Welfare and the Ends of Empire, ed. by Naylor, Ed, 31–58. Palgrave: London, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
García, Alejandro. Historias del Sahara: lo mejor y lo peor de los mundos. Madrid: La Catarata, 2001.Google Scholar
Geschiere, Peter. “Chiefs and Colonial Rule in Cameroon: Inventing Chieftaincy, French and British Style.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 63:2 (1993): 151–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gimeno Martín, Juan Carlos. “Ambivalencia y orden colonial español en el Sahara Occidental: (1969–1973).” Revista Andaluza de Antropología 5 (2013): 151–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gozálvez Pérez, Vicente. “Descolonización y migraciones desde el África Española. 1956–1975.” Investigaciones Geográficas 12 (1994): 45–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodges, Tony. Western Sahara. The Roots of a Desert War. Westport, Conn: L. Hill, 1986.Google Scholar
Isidoros, Konstantina. “The Silencing of Unifying Tribes: The Colonial Construction of Tribe and Its ‘Extraordinary Leap’ to Nascent Nation-State Formation in Western Sahara.” Journal of the Anthropological Society 7:2 (2015): 168–90.Google Scholar
Jerónimo, Miguel Bandeira. “Repressive Developmentalism: Idioms, Repertoires, and Trajectories in Late Colonialism.” The Oxford Handbook of the Ends of Empire, ed. by Thomas, Martin and Thompson, Andrew. Oxford: Oxford University Press, https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198713197.013.40.Google Scholar
Lewis, Joanna. Empire State-Building: War and Welfare in Kenya 1925–52. London: James Currey, 2000.Google Scholar
Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. London: Routledge, 1998.Google Scholar
López Bargados, Alberto. Arenas coloniales. Los Awlad Dalim ante la colonización franco española del Sahara. Barcelona, Bellaterra, 2003.Google Scholar
López Bargados, Alberto. “El Sahara ante su espejo: poéticas del punto muerto.” Les Cahiers d'EMAM 24–25 (2015): 133–50.Google Scholar
Louit, Michel Ivan. Ecouvillon? Discrète opération de maintien de l'ordre franco-espagnole. Sahara Occidental 1957–1958. Paris: Marsouins et Méharistes, 2009.Google Scholar
MacMaster, Neil. Burning the Veil: The Algerian War and the “Emancipation” of Muslim Women, 1954–62. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Marín Ferrer, Emilio. Atlas ilustrado. Ifni, Sáhara, Guinea. Ultimas colonias. Madrid: Susaeta Ediciones, 2014.Google Scholar
Martin-Márquez, Susan. Disorientations: Spanish Colonialism in Africa and the Performance of Identity. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morillas, Javier. Sahara Occidental, desarrollo y subdesarrollo. Madrid: El Dorado, 1988.Google Scholar
Robinson, Ronald. “Non-European Foundations of European Imperialism. Sketch for a Theory of Collaboration.” In Studies in the Theory of Imperialism, ed. by Owen, Roger and Sutcliffe, Bob, 117–42. London: Longman, 1972.Google Scholar
Robles Picón, Juan Ignacio, et al. “La poesía saharaui en el nacimiento de la conciencia nacional.” Les Cahiers d'EMAM 24–25 (2015): 55–76.Google Scholar
Rodríguez Esteban, José, and Timón, Diego Barrado. “Los procesos de urbanización en el Sahara español (1884–1975): un componente esencial del proyecto colonial.” Les Cahiers d'EMAM 24–25 (2015): 85–103.Google Scholar
Rodríguez Jiménez, José Luis. Agonía, traición, huida: El final del Sahara español. Barcelona: Crítica, 2015.Google Scholar
San Martin, Pablo. Western Sahara: The Refugee Nation. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Segato, Rita Laura. “Género y colonialidad: en busca de claves de lectura y de un vocabulario estratégico descolonial.” In Feminismos y poscolonialidad: descolonizando el feminismo desde y en America Latina, ed. by Bidaseca, Karina, 17–47. Buenos Aires: Godot, 2011.Google Scholar
Stucki, Andreas. “¿Españolizar desde la raíz? La formación de una élite femenina de cooperación en el ‘pequeño imperio español,’ c. 1960–1975.” Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies 17: 4 (2016): 343–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tejero Molina, Juan. El Sahara Español de la “A” a la “Z.” 2 vols. Madrid: Torres de Papel, 2013–2014.Google Scholar
Torres García, Ana. La Guerra de las Arenas. Conflicto entre Marruecos y Argelia durante la Guerra Fría (1963). Barcelona: Editorial Bellaterra, 2012.Google Scholar
Vidal Guardiola, Lorenzo. Ifni, 1957–1958: la prensa y la guerra que nunca existió. Madrid: Almena, 2006.Google Scholar
Walter, Dierk. Colonial Violence: European Empires and the Use of Force. London: Hurst, 2017.Google Scholar
Zade, Mohammed. Résistance et Armée de Libération au Maroc (1947–1956). De l'action politique à la lutte armée, rupture ou continuité? Rabat: Haut-Commissariat aux Anciens Résistants et Anciens Membres de l'Armée de Libération, Editions Kawtar, 2006.Google Scholar
Zunes, Stephen, and Mundy, Jacob. Western Sahara: War, Nationalism, and Conflict Irresolution. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2014.Google Scholar