No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
Human Taxonomies: Carl Linnaeus, Swedish Travel in Asia and the Classification of Man
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 August 2019
Abstract
This article looks at ways in which Swedish travel to Asia informed the classification of man in the work of Carl Linnaeus. In the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae (1758), Linnaeus made substantial changes to his earlier taxonomy of humans. Through two case studies, it is argued that these changes to a great extent were prompted by fresh Swedish eyewitness reports from China and Southeast Asia. The informants for the Homo asiaticus, a variety of Homo sapiens, and a proposed new species of humans, Homo nocturnus (or troglodytes), were all associated with the Swedish East India Company. The botanical contribution by men trained in the Linnaean method travelling on the company's ships has long been acknowledged. In contrast to the systematic collecting of botanical material, Swedish descriptions of Asia's human inhabitants were often inconclusive, reflecting the circumstances of the trade encounter. Linnaeus also relied on older observations made by countrymen, and his human taxonomies also highlight the role of travel literature in eighteenth-century anthropology.
- Type
- Articles
- Information
- Itinerario , Volume 43 , Special Issue 2: Colonial Entanglements: Crossroads, Contact Zones and Flows in Scandinavian Global History , August 2019 , pp. 218 - 242
- Copyright
- Copyright © 2019 Research Institute for History, Leiden University
Footnotes
*
Christina Skott is a Fellow Commoner, Director of Studies in History, and College Lecturer at Magdalene College, Cambridge, and an Affiliated Lecturer at the Faculty of History, University of Cambridge. Her publications have examined various aspects of European knowledge of Southeast Asia in the long early modern era, in particular the ways in which interaction with the region shaped European science and anthropology in the eighteenth century. Her present research interests include nineteenth-century economic botany, ecology, and colonial agriculture in the Malay Peninsula.
References
Bibliography
Braad, Christian Hindrik. Historiske Anmärkningar om Bengala; Dess invånare, och närvarande Tillstånd. Åhr 1754. Uppsala University Library, Uppsala, Sweden.Google Scholar
Braad, C. F. “Curriculum Vitae.” Royal Library, Stockholm, Sweden.Google Scholar
Braad Collection. Helsinki University Library, Helsinki, Finland.Google Scholar
Andersen, Jürgen, and Iversen, Volquard. Orientalische Reise-Beschreibungen; in der Bearbeitung von Adam Olearius; hrsg. von Dieter Lohmeier. Tübingen, 1980. (Reprint of the 1669 edition.)Google Scholar
Bernier, François. “Nouvelle division de la Terre, par les differentes especes ou races d'hommes qui l'habitent.” Journal des Scavans 24 April (1684): 148–55.Google Scholar
Blumenbach, J. F. “On the Natural Varieties of Mankind.” In The Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, edited and translated by Bendyshe, Thomas, 145–276. London: Longman, Roberts, & Green, 1865.Google Scholar
Bondt, Jacobus de. “Historiæ naturalis & medicæ Indiæ Orientalis.” In Gulielmi Pisonis De Indiæ utriusque re naturali et medica, libri quatuordecim. Amsterdam: Elzevier, 1658.Google Scholar
Bref och Skrifvelser af och till Carl von Linné Afd. 1. D. 2, Skrifvelser och Bref till K. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademien och dess Sekreterare. Stockholm: Ljus, 1908.Google Scholar
Brelin, Johan. Beskrifning öfver en Äfventyrlig Resa til och ifrån Ost-Indien, Södra America, och en del af Europa, åren 1755, 56, och 57. Uppsala: Kongl. Acad tryckeriet, 1758.Google Scholar
Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc. Natural History, general and particular. Vol. 14. London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1812.Google Scholar
Burnet, James (Lord Monboddo). On the Origin and Progress of Language. Vol. 1. Edinburgh: A. Kincaid & W. Creech, 1773.Google Scholar
Campanius Holm, Thomas. Kort beskrifning om provincien Nya Swerige uti America. Stockholm: Wankijfs Änkia, 1702.Google Scholar
Ekeberg, Carl Gustaf. Kort berättelse om den chinesiska landt-hushåldningen. Stockholm: L. L. Grefing, 1757.Google Scholar
Ekeberg, Carl Gustaf. Capitaine Carl Gustaf Ekebergs Ostindiska Resa, Åren 1770 och 1771. Beskrefven uti Bref till Kongl. Svenska Vet. Academiens Secreterare. Stockholm: H. F. Ekeberg, 1773.Google Scholar
Fontana, Nicolas. “On the Nicobar Isles and the Fruit of the Mellori.” Asiatic Researches 3 (1799): 292–309.Google Scholar
Forster, Johann Reinhold. Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World, edited by Thomas, Nicholas, Guest, Harriet, and Dettelbach, Michael, with a linguistics appendix by Rensch, Karl H.. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Gethe, C. J. Dagbok hållen på resan till Ostindien 1746–1749, edited by Ryden, B.. Uppsala: Svenska Linnésällskapet, 1975.Google Scholar
Grill, J. A. Inträdes-tal, om orsakerna, hvarföre Chinas natural-historia är så litet bekant: Hållet för Kongl. vetenskaps academien, den 29 september 1773. Stockholm: L. Salvius, 1773.Google Scholar
Kalm, Pehr, Resejournal över resan till Norra Amerika, published by Kerkkonen, Martti and Roos, John E.. Vol. 2. Helsingfors: Svenska Litteratursällskapet i Finland, 1970.Google Scholar
Kiöping, Nils Matson. Een kort beskriffning uppå trenne resor och peregrinationer, sampt konungarijket Japan. Wisingsborgh: Johan Kankel, 1667.Google Scholar
Linnaeus, Carolus. Systema Naturae: Sive, Regna Tria Naturæ Systematice Proposita Per Classes, Genera, & Species. Leiden: Theodorum Haak, Ex Typographia Joannis Wilhelmi de Groot, 1735.Google Scholar
Linnaeus, Carolus. Systema Naturæ: Per Regna Tria Naturae, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, Cum Charateribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis. 2 vols. Stockholm: L. Salvius, 1758–59.Google Scholar
Linnaeus, Carolus. Amoenitates Academicae: Seu Dissertationes Variae, Physicae, Medicae, Botanicae Antehac Tabulis Aeneis. Volumen sextum. Holmiae: L. Salvius 1763.Google Scholar
Linné, Carl. Menniskans cousiner (Anthropomorpha): Efterskrift och noter av Telemak Fredbärj. Uppsala: Svenska Linnésällskapet, 1955.Google Scholar
Montesquieu. The Spirit of the Laws, translated and edited by Cohler, Anne M., Miller, Basia Carolyn, and Stone, Harold Samuel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Nieuhof, Johan. Voyages and Travels to the East Indies 1653–1670. With an introduction by Anthony Reid. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Osbeck, Pehr. Dagbok Öfwer en Ostindisk Resa Åren 1750, 1751, 1752. Stockholm: L. L. Grefing, 1757.Google Scholar
Osbeck, Pehr. A Voyage to China and the East Indies: Together with a Voyage to Suratte by Olof Toreen and Account of the Chinese Husbandry by Captain Charles Gustavus Eckeberg. 2 vols. London: Benjamin White, 1771.Google Scholar
Reinius, I. I. Journal hållen på resan till Canton i China … ifrån dess begynnelse åhr 1745 till dess slut åhr 1748, edited by Lunelund, B.. Helsingfors: Svenska Litteratursällskapet i Finland, 1939.Google Scholar
Tärnström, Christopher. Christopher Tӓrnstrӧms Journal: En resa mellan Europa och Sydostasien, år 1746, kommenterad och bearbetad av Kristina Söderpalm. London: IK Foundation, 2005.Google Scholar
Toreen, O. “A Voyage to Suratte, China.” In Osbeck, P., A Voyage to China and the East Indies, vol. 2, 153–266.Google Scholar
Torén, Olof. “En Ostindisk resa till Suratte, China &c. Från 1750 April I. Till 1752 Jun. 26.” In Osbeck, Pehr, Dagbok Öfwer en Ostindisk Resa.Google Scholar
Willman, Olof Eriksson. En kort beskrivning på en resa till Ostindien och Japan, edited by Bernström, John and Wretö, Tore. Stockholm: T. Fischer, 1992.Google Scholar
Willman, Olof Eriksson. The Journal of Olof Eriksson Willman: From His Voyage to the Dutch East Indies and Japan, 1648–1654, translated and edited by Blomberg, C.. Leiden: Global Oriental, 2014.Google Scholar
The Linnaean Correspondence: www.alvin-portal.orgGoogle Scholar
Adas, M. Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Arne, T. J. “Svenska läkare och fältskärer i holländska Ostindiska kompaniets tjänst.” Lychnos (1956): 132–45.Google Scholar
Beekman, E. M., ed. and trans. The Ambonese Curiosity Cabinet: Georgius Everhardus Rumphius. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Bendyshe, T. “The History of Anthropology.” Memoirs of the Anthropological Society of London (1863–4): 335–458.Google Scholar
Bretschneider, E. History of European Botanical Discoveries in China. Vol 1. London: Sampson Low, Marston and Co., 1898.Google Scholar
Broberg, Gunnar. Homo sapiens L.: Studier i Carl von Linnés naturuppfattning och människolära. Lychnos-Bibliotek 28. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1975.Google Scholar
Broberg, Gunnar. “Homo sapiens: Linnaeus's Classification of Man.” In Linnaeus: The Man and His Work, edited by Frängsmyr, Tore et al. , 156–94. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.Google Scholar
Broberg, Gunnar, and Christensen-Nuges, Charlotte. “Homo sapiens: 250 Years as an Animal and a Moral Being.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsbok (2009): 7–30.Google Scholar
Demel, Walter. “Wie Die Chinesen gelb wurden: Beitrag zur Früehgeschichte der Rassentheorien.” Historische Zeitschrift 255 (1992): 625–66.Google Scholar
Demel, Walter. “Constructing Racial Theories on the East Asians as Transnational ‘Western’ Enterprise, 1750–1850.” In Race and Racism in Modern East Asia vol. 2, edited by Kowner, Rotem and Demel, Walter, 55–76. Leiden: Brill, 2015.Google Scholar
Dietz, Bettina. “Contribution and Co-production: The Collaborative Culture of Linnaean Botany.” Annals of Science 69:4 (2012): 551–69.Google Scholar
Dietz, Bettina. “What Is a Botanical Author? Pehr Osbeck's Travelogue and the Culture of Collaborative Publishing in Linnaean Botany.” In Linnaeus: Natural History and the Circulation of Knowledge, edited by Hodacs, Hanna et al. , 137–60. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2018.Google Scholar
Dufrenoy, M. L. “A Precursor of a Modern Anthropology: François Bernier (1620–1688).” Isis 41:1 (1950): 27–9.Google Scholar
Forsstrand, Carl. “Carl Gustaf Ekeberg, hans färder till Ostindien och Kina: Naturvetenskapliga intressen och förbindelser med Linné.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsbok (1928): 147–61.Google Scholar
Fox Maule, A., and Hansen, C.. “Linnés korrespondance med Pehr Osbeck 1750–1753.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsskrift (1972–1974): 75–145.Google Scholar
Frängsmyr, Tore. Ostindiska Kompaniet: Människorna, äventyret och den ekonomiska drömmen. Höganäs: Förlags AB Wiken, 1976.Google Scholar
Frängsmyr, Tore, ed. Science in Sweden: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1739–1989. Canton, Mass.: Science History Publications, 1989.Google Scholar
Frängsmyr, Tore. Sökandet efter upplysningen: En essä om 1700-talets svenska kulturdebatt. Höganäs: Wiken, 1993.Google Scholar
Franks, Jeremy. “The Observant Braad: A Swedish Enquirer in Gujarat in the 1750s.” Moyen Orient & Océan Indien 10 (1997): 155–82.Google Scholar
Gerlings, Jonas. “On the Use and Abuse of Natural History: Linnaean Science in Kant's Königsberg.” In Linnaeus: Natural History and the Circulation of Knowledge, edited by Hodacs, Hanna, Nyberg, Kenneth, and van Damme, Stéphane, 137–60.Google Scholar
Granroth, Christina. European Knowledge of Southeast Asia: Travel and Scholarship in the Early Modern Era. PhD diss., University of Cambridge, 2003.Google Scholar
Gustafsson, Anders. “Pehr Kalm och den Nya världen.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsskrift (2008): 71–116.Google Scholar
Hellman, Lisa. “Using China at Home: Knowledge Production and Gender in the Swedish East India Company, 1730–1800.” Itinerario 38:1 (2014): 35–55.Google Scholar
Hodacs, H., and Nyberg, K.. Naturalhistoria på resande fot: Om att forska, undervisa och göra karriär i 1700-talets Sverige. Lund: Nordic Academic Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Hodacs, Hanna, Nyberg, Kenneth, and van Damme, Stéphane, eds. Linnaeus: Natural History and the Circulation of Knowledge. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2018.Google Scholar
Hodgen, Margaret T. Early Anthropology in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1964.Google Scholar
Iperen, J. van, “Beskrifning på en hvit neger ifrån öen Bali”. In Samling af rön och uptäkter gjorde i senare tider uti physik, medicin, chirurgie, naturalhistoria. Götheborg, 1781.Google Scholar
Johannisson, Ture, ed. Nils Matson Kiöpings resa: Parallelltexter ur andra och tredje upplagorna. Stockholm: Svenska bokförlaget/Nordstedt, 1961.Google Scholar
Keevak, M. Becoming Yellow: A Short History of Racial Thinking. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Kjellberg, S. T. Svenska Ostindiska Compagnierna, 1731–1813. 2 vols. Malmö: Allhem, 1973–1975.Google Scholar
Koerner, Lisbet. “Carl Linnaeus in His Time and Place.” In Cultures of Natural History, edited by Jardine, N., Secord, J. A., and Spary, E. C., 145–62. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Koerner, Lisbet. Linnaeus: Nature and Nation. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Koninckx, C. The First and Second Charters of the Swedish East India Company (1731–1766): A Contribution to the Maritime, Economic and Social History of North-Western Europe in Its Relationships with the Far East. Kortrijk: Van Ghemmert, 1980.Google Scholar
Kowner, Rotem, and Skott, Christina. “East Asians in the Linnaean Taxonomy: Sources and Implications of a Racial Image.” In Race and Racism in Modern East Asia, vol. 2, edited by Kowner, Rotem and Demel, Walter, 23–54. Leiden: Brill, 2015.Google Scholar
Liedman, Sven-Eric. “Utilitarianism and the Economy.” In Science in Sweden: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1739–1989, edited by Frängsmyr, Tore, 23–44. Canton, Mass.: History Publications, U.S.A, 1989.Google Scholar
Lindroth, Sten. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens historia 1739–1818, Vol. 1,2: Tiden intill Wargentins död 1783. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1967.Google Scholar
Lindroth, Sten. “The Two Faces of Linnaeus.” In Linnaeus: The Man and His Work, edited by Frängsmyr, Tore, 1–62. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.Google Scholar
Löwegren, Yngve. Naturaliekabinett i Sverige under 1700-talet: Ett bidrag till zoologiens historia. Lychnos-Bibliotek 13. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1952.Google Scholar
Lundman, Bertil. “Linnés rasindelning av människan i Systema Naturae 1735 och 1758.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsbok (1965): 88–89.Google Scholar
Marshall, P. J., and Williams, Glyndwr. The Great Map of Mankind: British Perceptions of the World in the Age of Enlightenment. London: Dent, 1982.Google Scholar
Müller-Wille, Staffan, and Charmantier, Isabelle. “Natural History and Information Overload: The Case of Linnaeus.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 43 (2012): 4–15.Google Scholar
Nauman, Eric. “Braad, Christopher Henric.” In Svenskt biografiskt lexikon, vol. 5. Stockholm: Bonnier, 1925.Google Scholar
Nyberg, Kenneth. Bilder av Mittens rike: Kontinuitet och förändring i svenska resenärers kinaskildringar, 1749–1912. Göteborg: Historiska Institutionen, Göteborgs Universitet, 2001.Google Scholar
Nyberg, Kenneth, and Manktelow, Mariette. “Linnés apostlar och tillkomsten av Species plantarum.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsskrift (2002–2003): 9–30.Google Scholar
Nyberg, Kenneth. “Linnaeus' Apostles: Scientific Travel and the East India Trade.” Zoologica Scripta 38:1 (2009): 7–16.Google Scholar
Schiebinger, Londa L. Nature's Body: Sexual Politics and the Making of Modern Science. Boston: Beacon Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Sirén, O. “Kina och den kinesiska tanken i Sverige på 1700-talet.” Lychnos (1948–1949): 1–84.Google Scholar
Skott, Christina. “Linnaeus and the Troglodyte: Early European Encounters with the Malay World and the Natural History of Man.” Indonesia and the Malay World 42:123 (2014): 141–69.Google Scholar
Skuncke, Marie-Christine. “Carl Peter Thunbergs japanska resa i 1770- och 1780-talens medier.” Sjuttonhundratal (2008): 44–62.Google Scholar
Sloan, Phillip. “The Gaze of Natural History.” In Inventing Human Science: Eighteenth-Century Domains, edited by Fox, Christopher, Porter, Roy, and Wokler, Robert, 112–50. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Söderpalm, K., ed. Ostindiska Compagniet: Affärer och föremål. Göteborg: Göteborgs Stadsmuseum, 2000.Google Scholar
Sörlin, Sverker. “Scientific Travel: The Linnaean Tradition.” In Science in Sweden: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1739–1989, edited by Frängsmyr, Tore, 96–123. Canton, Mass.: Science History Publications, 1989.Google Scholar
Sörlin, Sverker. “Apostlarnas gärning: Vetenskap och offervilja i Linné-tidevarvet.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsskrift (1990–91): 75–89.Google Scholar
Sörlin, Sverker. “Ordering the World for Europe: Science as Intelligence and Information as Seen from the Northern Periphery.” Osiris, sec. ser., 15 (2000): 51–69.Google Scholar
Sörlin, Sverker, and Fagerstedt, Otto. Linné och hans apostlar. Stockholm: Natur och Kultur, 2004.Google Scholar
Spencer, Frank. “Pithecos to Pithecanthropus: An Abbreviated Review of Changing Scientific Views on the Relationship of the Anthropoid Apes to Homo.” In Ape, Man, Apeman: Changing Views since 1600, edited by Corbey, Raymond and Theunissen, Bert, 13–28. Leiden: Department of Prehistory, Leiden University, 1995.Google Scholar
Stearn, W. T. “Carl Linnaeus's Acquaintance with Tropical Plants.” Taxon 37:3 (1988): 776–81.Google Scholar
Steenstrup, C. “Scandinavians in Asian Waters in the 17th Century: On the Sources for the History of the Participation of Scandinavians in Early Dutch Ventures into Asia.” Acta Orientalia 43 (1982): 69–83.Google Scholar
Tinland, Franck. 1968. L'Homme sauvage: Homo ferus et Homo sylvestris de l'animal à l'homme. Paris: Payot, 1968.Google Scholar
Braad, Christian Hindrik. Historiske Anmärkningar om Bengala; Dess invånare, och närvarande Tillstånd. Åhr 1754. Uppsala University Library, Uppsala, Sweden.Google Scholar
Braad, C. F. “Curriculum Vitae.” Royal Library, Stockholm, Sweden.Google Scholar
Braad Collection. Helsinki University Library, Helsinki, Finland.Google Scholar
Andersen, Jürgen, and Iversen, Volquard. Orientalische Reise-Beschreibungen; in der Bearbeitung von Adam Olearius; hrsg. von Dieter Lohmeier. Tübingen, 1980. (Reprint of the 1669 edition.)Google Scholar
Bernier, François. “Nouvelle division de la Terre, par les differentes especes ou races d'hommes qui l'habitent.” Journal des Scavans 24 April (1684): 148–55.Google Scholar
Blumenbach, J. F. “On the Natural Varieties of Mankind.” In The Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, edited and translated by Bendyshe, Thomas, 145–276. London: Longman, Roberts, & Green, 1865.Google Scholar
Bondt, Jacobus de. “Historiæ naturalis & medicæ Indiæ Orientalis.” In Gulielmi Pisonis De Indiæ utriusque re naturali et medica, libri quatuordecim. Amsterdam: Elzevier, 1658.Google Scholar
Bref och Skrifvelser af och till Carl von Linné Afd. 1. D. 2, Skrifvelser och Bref till K. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademien och dess Sekreterare. Stockholm: Ljus, 1908.Google Scholar
Brelin, Johan. Beskrifning öfver en Äfventyrlig Resa til och ifrån Ost-Indien, Södra America, och en del af Europa, åren 1755, 56, och 57. Uppsala: Kongl. Acad tryckeriet, 1758.Google Scholar
Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc. Natural History, general and particular. Vol. 14. London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1812.Google Scholar
Burnet, James (Lord Monboddo). On the Origin and Progress of Language. Vol. 1. Edinburgh: A. Kincaid & W. Creech, 1773.Google Scholar
Campanius Holm, Thomas. Kort beskrifning om provincien Nya Swerige uti America. Stockholm: Wankijfs Änkia, 1702.Google Scholar
Ekeberg, Carl Gustaf. Kort berättelse om den chinesiska landt-hushåldningen. Stockholm: L. L. Grefing, 1757.Google Scholar
Ekeberg, Carl Gustaf. Capitaine Carl Gustaf Ekebergs Ostindiska Resa, Åren 1770 och 1771. Beskrefven uti Bref till Kongl. Svenska Vet. Academiens Secreterare. Stockholm: H. F. Ekeberg, 1773.Google Scholar
Fontana, Nicolas. “On the Nicobar Isles and the Fruit of the Mellori.” Asiatic Researches 3 (1799): 292–309.Google Scholar
Forster, Johann Reinhold. Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World, edited by Thomas, Nicholas, Guest, Harriet, and Dettelbach, Michael, with a linguistics appendix by Rensch, Karl H.. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Gethe, C. J. Dagbok hållen på resan till Ostindien 1746–1749, edited by Ryden, B.. Uppsala: Svenska Linnésällskapet, 1975.Google Scholar
Grill, J. A. Inträdes-tal, om orsakerna, hvarföre Chinas natural-historia är så litet bekant: Hållet för Kongl. vetenskaps academien, den 29 september 1773. Stockholm: L. Salvius, 1773.Google Scholar
Kalm, Pehr, Resejournal över resan till Norra Amerika, published by Kerkkonen, Martti and Roos, John E.. Vol. 2. Helsingfors: Svenska Litteratursällskapet i Finland, 1970.Google Scholar
Kiöping, Nils Matson. Een kort beskriffning uppå trenne resor och peregrinationer, sampt konungarijket Japan. Wisingsborgh: Johan Kankel, 1667.Google Scholar
Linnaeus, Carolus. Systema Naturae: Sive, Regna Tria Naturæ Systematice Proposita Per Classes, Genera, & Species. Leiden: Theodorum Haak, Ex Typographia Joannis Wilhelmi de Groot, 1735.Google Scholar
Linnaeus, Carolus. Systema Naturæ: Per Regna Tria Naturae, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, Cum Charateribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis. 2 vols. Stockholm: L. Salvius, 1758–59.Google Scholar
Linnaeus, Carolus. Amoenitates Academicae: Seu Dissertationes Variae, Physicae, Medicae, Botanicae Antehac Tabulis Aeneis. Volumen sextum. Holmiae: L. Salvius 1763.Google Scholar
Linné, Carl. Menniskans cousiner (Anthropomorpha): Efterskrift och noter av Telemak Fredbärj. Uppsala: Svenska Linnésällskapet, 1955.Google Scholar
Montesquieu. The Spirit of the Laws, translated and edited by Cohler, Anne M., Miller, Basia Carolyn, and Stone, Harold Samuel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Nieuhof, Johan. Voyages and Travels to the East Indies 1653–1670. With an introduction by Anthony Reid. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Osbeck, Pehr. Dagbok Öfwer en Ostindisk Resa Åren 1750, 1751, 1752. Stockholm: L. L. Grefing, 1757.Google Scholar
Osbeck, Pehr. A Voyage to China and the East Indies: Together with a Voyage to Suratte by Olof Toreen and Account of the Chinese Husbandry by Captain Charles Gustavus Eckeberg. 2 vols. London: Benjamin White, 1771.Google Scholar
Reinius, I. I. Journal hållen på resan till Canton i China … ifrån dess begynnelse åhr 1745 till dess slut åhr 1748, edited by Lunelund, B.. Helsingfors: Svenska Litteratursällskapet i Finland, 1939.Google Scholar
Tärnström, Christopher. Christopher Tӓrnstrӧms Journal: En resa mellan Europa och Sydostasien, år 1746, kommenterad och bearbetad av Kristina Söderpalm. London: IK Foundation, 2005.Google Scholar
Toreen, O. “A Voyage to Suratte, China.” In Osbeck, P., A Voyage to China and the East Indies, vol. 2, 153–266.Google Scholar
Torén, Olof. “En Ostindisk resa till Suratte, China &c. Från 1750 April I. Till 1752 Jun. 26.” In Osbeck, Pehr, Dagbok Öfwer en Ostindisk Resa.Google Scholar
Willman, Olof Eriksson. En kort beskrivning på en resa till Ostindien och Japan, edited by Bernström, John and Wretö, Tore. Stockholm: T. Fischer, 1992.Google Scholar
Willman, Olof Eriksson. The Journal of Olof Eriksson Willman: From His Voyage to the Dutch East Indies and Japan, 1648–1654, translated and edited by Blomberg, C.. Leiden: Global Oriental, 2014.Google Scholar
The Linnaean Correspondence: www.alvin-portal.orgGoogle Scholar
Adas, M. Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Arne, T. J. “Svenska läkare och fältskärer i holländska Ostindiska kompaniets tjänst.” Lychnos (1956): 132–45.Google Scholar
Beekman, E. M., ed. and trans. The Ambonese Curiosity Cabinet: Georgius Everhardus Rumphius. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Bendyshe, T. “The History of Anthropology.” Memoirs of the Anthropological Society of London (1863–4): 335–458.Google Scholar
Bretschneider, E. History of European Botanical Discoveries in China. Vol 1. London: Sampson Low, Marston and Co., 1898.Google Scholar
Broberg, Gunnar. Homo sapiens L.: Studier i Carl von Linnés naturuppfattning och människolära. Lychnos-Bibliotek 28. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1975.Google Scholar
Broberg, Gunnar. “Homo sapiens: Linnaeus's Classification of Man.” In Linnaeus: The Man and His Work, edited by Frängsmyr, Tore et al. , 156–94. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.Google Scholar
Broberg, Gunnar, and Christensen-Nuges, Charlotte. “Homo sapiens: 250 Years as an Animal and a Moral Being.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsbok (2009): 7–30.Google Scholar
Demel, Walter. “Wie Die Chinesen gelb wurden: Beitrag zur Früehgeschichte der Rassentheorien.” Historische Zeitschrift 255 (1992): 625–66.Google Scholar
Demel, Walter. “Constructing Racial Theories on the East Asians as Transnational ‘Western’ Enterprise, 1750–1850.” In Race and Racism in Modern East Asia vol. 2, edited by Kowner, Rotem and Demel, Walter, 55–76. Leiden: Brill, 2015.Google Scholar
Dietz, Bettina. “Contribution and Co-production: The Collaborative Culture of Linnaean Botany.” Annals of Science 69:4 (2012): 551–69.Google Scholar
Dietz, Bettina. “What Is a Botanical Author? Pehr Osbeck's Travelogue and the Culture of Collaborative Publishing in Linnaean Botany.” In Linnaeus: Natural History and the Circulation of Knowledge, edited by Hodacs, Hanna et al. , 137–60. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2018.Google Scholar
Dufrenoy, M. L. “A Precursor of a Modern Anthropology: François Bernier (1620–1688).” Isis 41:1 (1950): 27–9.Google Scholar
Forsstrand, Carl. “Carl Gustaf Ekeberg, hans färder till Ostindien och Kina: Naturvetenskapliga intressen och förbindelser med Linné.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsbok (1928): 147–61.Google Scholar
Fox Maule, A., and Hansen, C.. “Linnés korrespondance med Pehr Osbeck 1750–1753.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsskrift (1972–1974): 75–145.Google Scholar
Frängsmyr, Tore. Ostindiska Kompaniet: Människorna, äventyret och den ekonomiska drömmen. Höganäs: Förlags AB Wiken, 1976.Google Scholar
Frängsmyr, Tore, ed. Science in Sweden: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1739–1989. Canton, Mass.: Science History Publications, 1989.Google Scholar
Frängsmyr, Tore. Sökandet efter upplysningen: En essä om 1700-talets svenska kulturdebatt. Höganäs: Wiken, 1993.Google Scholar
Franks, Jeremy. “The Observant Braad: A Swedish Enquirer in Gujarat in the 1750s.” Moyen Orient & Océan Indien 10 (1997): 155–82.Google Scholar
Gerlings, Jonas. “On the Use and Abuse of Natural History: Linnaean Science in Kant's Königsberg.” In Linnaeus: Natural History and the Circulation of Knowledge, edited by Hodacs, Hanna, Nyberg, Kenneth, and van Damme, Stéphane, 137–60.Google Scholar
Granroth, Christina. European Knowledge of Southeast Asia: Travel and Scholarship in the Early Modern Era. PhD diss., University of Cambridge, 2003.Google Scholar
Gustafsson, Anders. “Pehr Kalm och den Nya världen.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsskrift (2008): 71–116.Google Scholar
Hellman, Lisa. “Using China at Home: Knowledge Production and Gender in the Swedish East India Company, 1730–1800.” Itinerario 38:1 (2014): 35–55.Google Scholar
Hodacs, H., and Nyberg, K.. Naturalhistoria på resande fot: Om att forska, undervisa och göra karriär i 1700-talets Sverige. Lund: Nordic Academic Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Hodacs, Hanna, Nyberg, Kenneth, and van Damme, Stéphane, eds. Linnaeus: Natural History and the Circulation of Knowledge. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2018.Google Scholar
Hodgen, Margaret T. Early Anthropology in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1964.Google Scholar
Iperen, J. van, “Beskrifning på en hvit neger ifrån öen Bali”. In Samling af rön och uptäkter gjorde i senare tider uti physik, medicin, chirurgie, naturalhistoria. Götheborg, 1781.Google Scholar
Johannisson, Ture, ed. Nils Matson Kiöpings resa: Parallelltexter ur andra och tredje upplagorna. Stockholm: Svenska bokförlaget/Nordstedt, 1961.Google Scholar
Keevak, M. Becoming Yellow: A Short History of Racial Thinking. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Kjellberg, S. T. Svenska Ostindiska Compagnierna, 1731–1813. 2 vols. Malmö: Allhem, 1973–1975.Google Scholar
Koerner, Lisbet. “Carl Linnaeus in His Time and Place.” In Cultures of Natural History, edited by Jardine, N., Secord, J. A., and Spary, E. C., 145–62. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Koerner, Lisbet. Linnaeus: Nature and Nation. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Koninckx, C. The First and Second Charters of the Swedish East India Company (1731–1766): A Contribution to the Maritime, Economic and Social History of North-Western Europe in Its Relationships with the Far East. Kortrijk: Van Ghemmert, 1980.Google Scholar
Kowner, Rotem, and Skott, Christina. “East Asians in the Linnaean Taxonomy: Sources and Implications of a Racial Image.” In Race and Racism in Modern East Asia, vol. 2, edited by Kowner, Rotem and Demel, Walter, 23–54. Leiden: Brill, 2015.Google Scholar
Liedman, Sven-Eric. “Utilitarianism and the Economy.” In Science in Sweden: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, 1739–1989, edited by Frängsmyr, Tore, 23–44. Canton, Mass.: History Publications, U.S.A, 1989.Google Scholar
Lindroth, Sten. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens historia 1739–1818, Vol. 1,2: Tiden intill Wargentins död 1783. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1967.Google Scholar
Lindroth, Sten. “The Two Faces of Linnaeus.” In Linnaeus: The Man and His Work, edited by Frängsmyr, Tore, 1–62. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.Google Scholar
Löwegren, Yngve. Naturaliekabinett i Sverige under 1700-talet: Ett bidrag till zoologiens historia. Lychnos-Bibliotek 13. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1952.Google Scholar
Lundman, Bertil. “Linnés rasindelning av människan i Systema Naturae 1735 och 1758.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsbok (1965): 88–89.Google Scholar
Marshall, P. J., and Williams, Glyndwr. The Great Map of Mankind: British Perceptions of the World in the Age of Enlightenment. London: Dent, 1982.Google Scholar
Müller-Wille, Staffan, and Charmantier, Isabelle. “Natural History and Information Overload: The Case of Linnaeus.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 43 (2012): 4–15.Google Scholar
Nauman, Eric. “Braad, Christopher Henric.” In Svenskt biografiskt lexikon, vol. 5. Stockholm: Bonnier, 1925.Google Scholar
Nyberg, Kenneth. Bilder av Mittens rike: Kontinuitet och förändring i svenska resenärers kinaskildringar, 1749–1912. Göteborg: Historiska Institutionen, Göteborgs Universitet, 2001.Google Scholar
Nyberg, Kenneth, and Manktelow, Mariette. “Linnés apostlar och tillkomsten av Species plantarum.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsskrift (2002–2003): 9–30.Google Scholar
Nyberg, Kenneth. “Linnaeus' Apostles: Scientific Travel and the East India Trade.” Zoologica Scripta 38:1 (2009): 7–16.Google Scholar
Schiebinger, Londa L. Nature's Body: Sexual Politics and the Making of Modern Science. Boston: Beacon Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Sirén, O. “Kina och den kinesiska tanken i Sverige på 1700-talet.” Lychnos (1948–1949): 1–84.Google Scholar
Skott, Christina. “Linnaeus and the Troglodyte: Early European Encounters with the Malay World and the Natural History of Man.” Indonesia and the Malay World 42:123 (2014): 141–69.Google Scholar
Skuncke, Marie-Christine. “Carl Peter Thunbergs japanska resa i 1770- och 1780-talens medier.” Sjuttonhundratal (2008): 44–62.Google Scholar
Sloan, Phillip. “The Gaze of Natural History.” In Inventing Human Science: Eighteenth-Century Domains, edited by Fox, Christopher, Porter, Roy, and Wokler, Robert, 112–50. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Söderpalm, K., ed. Ostindiska Compagniet: Affärer och föremål. Göteborg: Göteborgs Stadsmuseum, 2000.Google Scholar
Sörlin, Sverker. “Scientific Travel: The Linnaean Tradition.” In Science in Sweden: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1739–1989, edited by Frängsmyr, Tore, 96–123. Canton, Mass.: Science History Publications, 1989.Google Scholar
Sörlin, Sverker. “Apostlarnas gärning: Vetenskap och offervilja i Linné-tidevarvet.” Svenska Linnésällskapets Årsskrift (1990–91): 75–89.Google Scholar
Sörlin, Sverker. “Ordering the World for Europe: Science as Intelligence and Information as Seen from the Northern Periphery.” Osiris, sec. ser., 15 (2000): 51–69.Google Scholar
Sörlin, Sverker, and Fagerstedt, Otto. Linné och hans apostlar. Stockholm: Natur och Kultur, 2004.Google Scholar
Spencer, Frank. “Pithecos to Pithecanthropus: An Abbreviated Review of Changing Scientific Views on the Relationship of the Anthropoid Apes to Homo.” In Ape, Man, Apeman: Changing Views since 1600, edited by Corbey, Raymond and Theunissen, Bert, 13–28. Leiden: Department of Prehistory, Leiden University, 1995.Google Scholar
Stearn, W. T. “Carl Linnaeus's Acquaintance with Tropical Plants.” Taxon 37:3 (1988): 776–81.Google Scholar
Steenstrup, C. “Scandinavians in Asian Waters in the 17th Century: On the Sources for the History of the Participation of Scandinavians in Early Dutch Ventures into Asia.” Acta Orientalia 43 (1982): 69–83.Google Scholar
Tinland, Franck. 1968. L'Homme sauvage: Homo ferus et Homo sylvestris de l'animal à l'homme. Paris: Payot, 1968.Google Scholar