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Ambivalent Relationships: The Portuguese State and the Indian Nationals in Mozambique in the Aftermath of the Goa Crisis, 1961–1971

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 March 2020

Susana Trovão  and
Sandra Araújo
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Abstract

Grounded in written historical records and oral sources, this exploratory article addresses the Portuguese policy that targeted Indian nationals settled in Mozambique in the aftermath of the liberation/occupation of Portuguese India in December 1961. It equally tackles the views, concerns, and responses developed by Indian nationals to cope with their confinement in internment camps, frozen assets, seizures and liquidation, and deportation. The analysis evinces the inbuilt ambivalence in the way Portuguese colonial authorities constructed the internment of Indian nationals as humanitarian and protective measures, while displaying their dispossession and repatriation as harsh retaliatory political measures, at odds with the purported political and legal principles of colonial governance based on Portuguese Luso-tropical exceptionalism. The differentiated impact of such political measures, far from being univocal and uncompromising, is discussed as marred by innumerable contradictions resulting from the Portuguese economic vulnerability and dependence on Indian subaltern elites in Mozambique. Furthermore, the article presents a particular analytical sensitivity to the ambivalence surrounding the modes in which men and women of Indian origin related to Portuguese colonial power and responded to its governance.

Keywords

MozambiqueGoa crisiscolonialismIndian citizensforced displacement
Type
Articles
Information
Itinerario , Volume 44 , Special Issue 1: Violence, Migration, and Gender in the Portuguese and Spanish-Speaking World. Local Impacts, Global Processes, and the Echoes of Empire, 1945–2019 , April 2020 , pp. 106 - 139
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Research Institute for History, Leiden University

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Footnotes

*

Susana Trovão is a researcher at CRIA—Centro em Rede de Investigação em Antropologia, and a full professor at the Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas of the Universidade Nova de Lisboa. Sandra Araújo is a research associate at ICS, UL – Instituto de Ciências Sociais, Universidade de Lisboa. The authors are most thankful to the anonymous referees and Andreas Stucki for their valuable comments and suggestions. This article was supported by the FCT (Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology) through UID/ANT/04038/2019—CRIA (Centre for Research in Anthropology).

References

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Lacxmi Popatbhai Radia, interviewed in Leicester, 2012.Google Scholar
Lalichandra, interviewed in Maputo, 2007.Google Scholar
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Mahomed Yossuf, interviewed in Lisbon, 2009.Google Scholar
Manilal Kanji, interviewed in Lisbon and Southall, 2010.Google Scholar
Manorma Samgi, interviewed in Lisbon, 2012.Google Scholar
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Popatal Karsane, interviewed in Lisbon, 2009.Google Scholar
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Castelo, Cláudia, ‘O Modo Português de Estar no Mundo’: O Luso-tropicalismo e a Ideologia Colonial Portuguesa (1933–1961). Oporto: Afrontamento, 1999.Google Scholar
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Couto, Fernando. Moçambique 1974. O Fim do Império e o Nascimento da Nação. Alfragide: Caminho, 2011.Google Scholar
Desai, Nishtha. “The Denationalisation of Goans: An Insight into the Construction of Cultural Identity.” Lusotopie 7 (2000): 469–76.Google Scholar
Frenz, Margret. Community, Memory, and Migration in a Globalizing World: The Goan Experience, c. 1890–1980. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frenz, Margret. “Representing the Portuguese Empire: Goan Consuls in British East Africa (c. 1910–1963).” In Imperial Migrations: Colonial Communities and Diaspora in the Portuguese World, edited by Morier-Genoud, Eric and Cahen, Michel, 193–212. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frenz, Margret. “Transimperial Connections: East African Goan Perspectives on ‘Goa 1961.’” Contemporary South Asia 22:3 (2014): 240–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, Robert. South Asians in East Africa: An Economic and Social History, 1890–1980. Boulder: Westview Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Gupta, Pamila. Portuguese Decolonization in the Indian Ocean World: History and Ethnography. London: Bloomsbury, 2018.Google Scholar
Karnik, Sharmila. “Goans in Mozambique.” Africa Quarterly 38:3 (1998): 96–118Google Scholar
Khouri, Nicole and Leite, Joana. “The Ismailis of Mozambique: History of a Twofold Migration (Late 19th century to 1975).” In Imperial Migrations: Colonial Communities and Diaspora in the Portuguese World, edited by Morier-Genoud, Eric and Cahen, Michel, 168–89. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Léonard, Yves. “O Ultramar Português.” In História da Expansão Portuguesa. Último Império e Recentramento (1930–1998), edited by Bethencourt, Francisco and Chaudhuri, Kirti, 31–50. Navarra: Círculo de Leitores, 1999.Google Scholar
Machado, Pedro. “A Forgotten Corner of the Indian Ocean: Gujarati Merchants, Portuguese India and the Mozambique Slave Trade, c. 1730–1830.” In The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia, edited by Campbell, Gwyn, 16–33. London: Frank Cass, 2004.Google Scholar
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Mahmood, Saba. Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Markovits, Claude. The Global World of Indian Merchants 1750–1947: Traders of Sind from Bukhara to Panama. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayaram, Shail. “Spirit Possession: Reframing Discourses of the Self and Other.” Purusartha 21 (1999): 101–32.Google Scholar
Metcalf, Thomas. Imperial Connections: India in the Indian Ocean Arena, 1860–1920. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Moço, Diogo. Prisioneiros na Índia 1961–1962. MA thesis in Contemporary History, Faculdade de Letras, Universidade de Lisboa, 2012.Google Scholar
Morais, Carlos. A Queda da Índia Portuguesa. Crónica da Invasão e do Cativeiro. Braga: Editorial Intervenção, 1980.Google Scholar
Moreira, António. “A Crise: do ‘Terramoto Delgado’ ao Golpe de Beja.” In Portugal Contemporâneo, edited by Reis, António, vol. 5, 21–36. Lisbon: Publicações Alfa, 1990.Google Scholar
Morier-Genoud, Eric, and Cahen, Michel. “Introduction: Portugal, Empire, and Migrations—Was There Ever an Autonomous Social Imperial Space?” In Imperial Migrations. Colonial Communities and Diaspora in the Portuguese World, edited by Morier-Genoud and Cahen, 1–28. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.Google Scholar
Oliveira, Pedro. Os Despojos da Aliança. A Grã-Bretanha e a Questão Colonial Portuguesa (1945–1975). Lisbon: Edições Tinta da China, 2007.Google Scholar
Penrard, Jean-Claude. “La Présence Isma'ilienne en Afrique de l'Est.” In Marchand et Hommes d'Affaires Asiatiques dans l'Ocean Indique et la Mer de Chine, 13e–20e siècles, edited by Lombard, Denis and Aubin, Jean, 221–36. Paris: Editions de l'EHESS, 1988.Google Scholar
Pinto, António. “Portugal e a Resistência à Descolonização.” In História da Expansão Portuguesa. Último Império e Recentramento (1930–1998), edited by Bethencourt, Francisco and Chaudhuri, Kirti, 51–64. Navarra: Círculo de Leitores, 1999.Google Scholar
Prinz, Manfred. “Intercultural Links between Goa and Mozambique in their Colonial and Contemporary History.” In Goa and Portugal: Their Cultural Links, edited by Borges, Charles and Feldmann, Helmut, 112–3. New Delhi: Concept Publishing, 1997.Google Scholar
Rita-Ferreira, António. Moçambique e os Naturais da Índia Portuguesa. Separata do II Seminário Internacional de História Indo-Portuguesa—Actas, 617–48. Lisbon: Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical, 1985.Google Scholar
Rodrigues, Luís. “Os Estados Unidos e a Questão de Goa em 1961.” Ler História 42 (2002): 61–90.Google Scholar
Rosales, Marta. As Coisas da Casa. Objectos domésticos, memórias e narrativas identitárias de famílias transcontinentais. PhD diss., Social and Cultural Anthropology, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas. Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2007.Google Scholar
Rosas, Fernando. “Goa, ou o Princípio do Fim.” In Goa em 1956. Relatório ao Governo, edited by Ribeiro, Orlando and Daveau, Suzanne, 11–24. Lisbon: Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, 1999.Google Scholar
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