Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T15:22:02.809Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A Reality of Vulnerability and Dependence: Internet Access as a Human Right

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 February 2019

Ryan Shandler  and
Daphna Canetti
Ryan Shandler
Affiliation:
School of Political Science, University of Haifa; [email protected].
Daphna Canetti
Affiliation:
Professor, School of Political Science, University of Haifa.
Get access

Abstract

We are faced with a new reality where our reliance on internet access to fulfil basic civil tasks is threatened by increasing personal and societal cyber vulnerability. This dichotomy of dependence and vulnerability requires a new framework for understanding the legal and human rights status of this evolving technological reality. A number of theories have sought to explain how internet access could attain the status of a human right. These include reliance on the freedom of expression protection offered by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. More recent approaches have suggested that international customary law could apply, or that internet access could attain the status of an auxiliary human right. Despite repeated demands by international institutions to address modern cyber challenges through a human rights lens, this assortment of legal approaches has failed to garner a consensus view in the international community. The article reviews the merits of each of these arguments, and grounds the debate in the lens of this reality of dependence and vulnerability. Of the four options surveyed, we find that auxiliary righthood is the most promising approach, but that additional research is required to substantiate the claims.

Keywords

internet accesshuman rightscyber attacksinternet shutdowns
Type
Articles
Information
Israel Law Review , Volume 52 , Issue 1 , March 2019 , pp. 77 - 98
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and The Faculty of Law, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Balkin, Jack M, ‘Digital Speech and Democratic Culture: A Theory of Freedom of Expression for the Information Society’ (2004) 79 New York University Law Review 1Google Scholar.

2 Kristina Lerman, ‘User Participation in Social Media: Digg Study’ (2007) IEEE/WIC/ACM International Conference on Web Intelligence and Intelligent Agent Technology 255, https://arxiv.org/abs/0708.2414; Ann Macintosh, ‘Characterizing e-Participation in Policy-making’, Proceedings of the 37th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2004; Volokh, Eugene, ‘Cheap Speech and What It Will Do’ (1995) 104 Yale Law Journal 1805CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Simon Kemp, ‘Digital in 2018: Global Overview’, We Are Social, 13 January 2018, https://wearesocial.com/blog/2018/01/global-digital-report-2018.

4 Susan Perry and Claudia Roda, Human Rights and Digital Technology: Digital Tightrope (Springer 2016).

5 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171 (ICCPR).

6 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UNGA Res 217A (III), UN Doc A/810 (1948) 71.

7 Jason M Tenenbaum, ’Is There a Protected Right to Access the Internet?’, International Journal of Constitutional Law Blog, 6 June 2014, http://www.iconnectblog.com/2014/06/is-there-a-protected-right-to-access-the-Internet; Joyce, Daniel, ‘Internet Freedom and Human Rights’ (2015) 26 European Journal of International Law 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 Frank La Rue, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression (16 May 2011), UN Doc A/HRC/17/27.

9 Mathiesen, Kate, ‘The Human Right to Internet Access: A Philosophical Defense’ (2012) 18 International Review of Information Ethics 9Google Scholar.

10 Kemp (n 3).

11 Darrell West, ‘Digital Divide: Improving Internet Access in the Developing World through Affordable Services and Diverse Content’, Center for Technology Innovation at Brookings, February 2015, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/West_Internet-Access.pdf.

12 Balkin, Jack M, ‘Old-School/New-School Speech Regulation’ (2014) 127 Harvard Law Review 2297Google Scholar.

13 Balkin (n 1).

14 Coleman, Stephen and Blumler, Jay G, The Internet and Democratic Citizenship: Theory, Practice and Policy (Cambridge University Press 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 ibid.

16 Owen Fiss, ‘Free Speech and Social Structure’, Faculty Scholarship Series, 1986, Paper 1210, http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/1210.

17 Aaron Smith, ‘The Internet and Campaign 2010’, Pew Research Center, 17 March 2011, http://www.pewinternet.org/2011/03/17/the-internet-and-campaign-2010.

18 Jim Conaghan, ‘Newspaper Digital Audience Peaks’, News Media Alliance, 9 October 2015, https://www.newsmediaalliance.org/newspaper-digital-audience-grew-twice-fast-internet-past-year; Cram, Ian, Citizen Journalists: Newer Media, Republican Moments and the Constitution (Edward Elgar 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 King, Donald W and others, ‘Patterns of Journal Use by Faculty at Three Diverse Universities’ (2003) 9(10) D–Lib MagazineCrossRefGoogle Scholar, http://www.dlib.org/dlib/october03/king/10king.html; Luther, Judy, ‘White Paper on Electronic Journal Usage Statistics’ (2002) 41(2) Serials Librarian 119CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Packingham v State of North Carolina 15–1194 US (2017).

21 Henrik Almstrom and Joy Liddicoat, ‘The Rights to Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association and the Internet’, Submission to the UN Special Rapporteur by the Association for Progressive Communication, 2012, https://www.apc.org/sites/default/files/APC_Submission_FoA_Online.pdf.

22 Christensen, Henrik, ‘Political Activities on the Internet: Slacktivism or Political Participation by Other Means?’ (2011) 16 First Monday 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 Pollock, John, ‘Streetbook: How Egyptian and Tunisian Youth Hacked the Arab Spring’ (2011) 114 Technology Review 5Google Scholar; Chander, Anupam, ‘Jasmine Revolutions’ (2011) 97 Cornell Law Review 505Google Scholar.

24 Arafa, Mohamed and Armstrong, Crystal, ‘“Facebook to Mobilize, Twitter to Coordinate Protests, and YouTube to Tell the World”: New Media, Cyberactivism, and the Arab Spring’ (2016) 10 Journal of Global Initiatives: Policy, Pedagogy, Perspective 1Google Scholar.

25 Darrell M West, ‘Internet Shutdowns Cost Countries $2.4 Billion Last Year’, Center for Technology Innovation at Brookings, October 2016, https://www.brookings.edu/research/internet-shutdowns-cost-countries-2-4-billion-last-year.

26 Mendel, Toby, ‘Freedom of Information: A Comparative Legal Survey’ (2nd edn, UNESCO 2008)Google Scholar.

27 Silcock, Rachel, ‘What is E-Government?’ (2001) 54 Parliamentary Affairs 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 Vissers, Sara and Stolle, Dietlind, ‘The Internet and New Modes of Political Participation: Online versus Offline Participation’ (2014) 17 Information Communication and Society 937CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

29 ibid; Gibson, Rachel and Cantijoch, Marta, ‘Conceptualizing and Measuring Participation in the Age of the Internet: Is Online Political Engagement Really Different to Offline?’ (2013) 75 The Journal of Politics 3, 701CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 Ryan Shandler, ‘Measuring the Political and Social Implications of Government-Initiated Cyber Shutdowns’ (2018) 8th USENIX Workshop on Free and Open Communications on the Internet (FOCI '18).

31 David Lee, ‘Russia and Ukraine in Cyber “Stand-off”’, BBC News, 5 March 2014, https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-26447200.

32 Vijayalakshmi, Yellepeddi and others, ‘Study on Emerging Trends in Malware Variants’ (2017) 117 International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics 22Google Scholar.

33 Osterman Survey, ‘Understanding the Depth of the Ransomware Problem’, August 2016, https://www.malwarebytes.com/surveys/ransomware.

34 Lu Tan and Neng Wang, ‘Future Internet: The Internet of Things’, 3rd International Conference on Advanced Computer Theory and Engineering, 20–22 August 2010, vol 5, 376.

35 Hannah Bryce, ‘The Internet of Things Will Be Even More Vulnerable to Cyber Attacks’, Chatham House, 18 May 2017, https://www.chathamhouse.org/expert/comment/internet-things-will-be-even-more-vulnerable-cyber-attacks.

36 Norris, Pippa, Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (Cambridge University Press 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 van Deursen, Alexander and Helsper, Ellen J, ‘A Nuanced Understanding of Internet Use and Non-use among the Elderly’ (2015) 30 European Journal of Communication 2, 171CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 William H Dutton and Grant Blank, with Darja Groselj, ‘Cultures of the Internet: The Internet in Britain’, Oxford Internet Survey 2013, Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford.

39 See, eg, Corrales, Javier and Westhoff, Frank, ‘Information Technology Adoption and Political Regimes’ (2006) 50(4) International Studies Quarterly 911CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kinney, Bo, ‘The Internet, Public Libraries, and the Digital Divide’ (2010) 29 Public Library Quarterly 104CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Zhang, Xiaoqun, ‘Income Disparity and Digital Divide: The Internet Consumption Model and Cross-Country Empirical Research’ (2013) 37(6–7) Telecommunications Policy 515CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

40 La Rue (n 8).

41 Doria Pilling and Heike Boeltzig, ‘Moving Toward E-Government: Effective Strategies for Increasing Access and Use of the Internet among Non-Internet Users in the US and UK’, Proceedings of the 8th Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research, ‘Bridging Disciplines & Domains’, 20–23 May 2007, 35, https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1248460.1248467.

42 ibid.

43 Van Deursen and Helsper (n 37).

44 Dionne Searcey and Francois Essomba, ‘African Nations Increasingly Silence Internet to Stem Protests’, The New York Times, 10 February 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/10/world/africa/african-nations-increasingly-silence-internet-to-stem-protests.html.

45 West (n 25).

46 Philip N Howard, Sheetal D Agarwal and Muzammil M Hussain, ‘The Dictators’ Digital Dilemma: When Do States Disconnect Their Digital Networks?’, Brookings Institution Issues in Technology Innovation, 5 October 2011, https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-dictators-digital-dilemma-when-do-states-disconnect-their-digital-networks.

47 West (n 25).

48 Subramanian, Ramesh, ‘The Growth of Global Internet Censorship and Circumvention: A Survey’ (2011) 11 Communications of the IIMA 2Google Scholar.

49 Lizzie Dearden, ‘Ankara Terror Attack: Turkey Censors Media Coverage of Bombings as Twitter and Facebook “Blocked”’, Independent, 10 October 2015, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/ankara-terror-attack-turkey-censors-media-coverage-of-bombings-as-twitter-and-facebook-blocked-a6689036.html.

50 Nivedita Dash, ‘Jat Reservation Protest in Haryana: Mobile Internet Services Blocked in Rohtak’, India Today, 18 February 2016, https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/jat-reservation-protest-in-haryana-mobile-internet-services-blocked-in-rohtak-309472-2016-02-18.

51 ‘Brazil Judge Orders WhatsApp Blocked, Affecting 100 Million Users’, Reuters, 2 May 2016, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-facebook-brazil-whatsapp-idUSKCN0XT1KB

52 West (n 25).

53 Adam Wagner, ‘Is Internet Access a Human Right?’, The Guardian, 11 January 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/law/2012/jan/11/is-internet-access-a-human-right

54 (n 20).

55 JI v New Jersey State Parole Board 223 NJ 555 (2017).

56 Tolon, Elizabeth, ‘Updating the Social Network: How Outdated and Unclear State Legislation Violates Sex Offenders' First Amendment Rights’ (2016) 85 Fordham Law Review 1827Google Scholar.

57 Sabu Mathew George v Union of India and Others 341 SCC 08 (2017).

58 R v Smith & Others [2011] EWCA Crim 1772.

59 La Rue (n 8).

60 UN Human Rights Council, ‘The Promotion, Protection and Enjoyment of Human Rights on the Internet (18 July 2016), UN Doc A/HRC/RES/32/13.

61 Council of Europe, Declaration by the Committee of Ministers on the Protection of Freedom of Expression and Information and Freedom of Assembly and Association with regard to Internet Domain Names and Name Strings, (adopted by the Committee of Ministers, 21 September 2011) para 3, https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1835805; Council of Europe, Committee of Experts on Cross-Border Flow of Internet Traffic and Internet Freedom (MSI-INT), Draft Report on Freedom of Assembly and Association on the Internet (11 May 2015), https://rm.coe.int/draft-report-on-freedom-of-assembly-and-association-on-the-internet/1680744cfb.

62 Council of Europe (2015), ibid.

63 Conseil constitutionnel [Constitutional Council], Decision No 2009-580DC, 22 June 2009, relative à la loi favorisant la diffusion et la protection de la création sur internet, 13 June 2009, Journal Officiel de la République Française [Official Gazette of France] 9675.

64 Lucchi, Nicola, ‘Access to Network Services and Protection of Constitutional Rights: Recognizing the Essential Role of Internet Access for the Freedom of Expression’ (2011) 19 Cardozo Journal of International and Comparative Law 645Google Scholar.

65 Packingham v State of North Carolina (n 20).

66 R v Smith (n 58).

67 George v Union of India (n 57).

68 Syntagma (Syn. 2008) [Constitution] 5a (Greece).

69 Bobbie Johnson, ‘Finland Makes Broadband Access a Legal Right’, The Guardian, 14 October 2009, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2009/oct/14/finland-broadband.

70 Among a long list of articles on the topic by Sen and Nussbaum see, eg, Sen, Amartya, ‘Human Rights and Capabilities’ (2005) 6 Journal of Human Development 151CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

71 Johnstone, Justine, ‘Technology as Empowerment: A Capability Approach to Computer Ethics’ (2007) 9(1) Ethics and Information Technology 73CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

72 Nussbaum, Martha C, Women and Human Development: The Capabilities Approach, Vol 3 (Cambridge University Press 2001)Google Scholar.

73 Birdsall, William F, ‘Human Capabilities and Information and Communication Technology: The Communicative Connection’ (2011) 13(2) Ethics and Information Technology 93CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 Birdsall, ibid.

75 Beitz, Charles R, The Idea of Human Rights (Oxford University Press 2011)Google Scholar.

76 ibid.

77 Wang, Xiaowei, ‘Time to Think about Human Right to the Internet Access: A Beitz's Approach’ (2013) Journal of Politics and Law 6, 67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

78 ibid.

79 Best, Michael L, ‘Can the Internet Be a Human Right?’ (2004) 4 Human Rights & Human Welfare 23Google Scholar.

80 ibid 24.

81 Wang (n 77).

82 Crawford, Colin, ‘Cyberplace: Defining a Right to Internet Access through Public Accommodation Law’ (2003) 76 Temple Law Review 225Google Scholar.

83 Land, Molly, ‘Toward an International Law of the Internet’ (2013) 54 Harvard International Law Journal 393Google Scholar.

84 ibid.

85 ibid.

86 Tenenbaum (n 7).

87 Nowak, Manfred, U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary (NP Engel 1993) 343Google Scholar.

88 UN Commission on Human Rights Summary Record, 6th Session (2 May 1950), UN Doc E/CN.4/SR.165, para 59.

89 Land (n 83).

90 For an in-depth history of the drafting of this clause, see Land (n 83).

91 Haugen, Hans, ‘Is Internet Access a Human Right for Everyone, or Only for Persons with Disabilities?’ (2014) 40 Kritisk juss, 26–51Google Scholar.

92 Joyce (n 7).

93 ibid.

94 La Rue (n 8).

95 UN Human Rights Council (n 60) para 5.

96 La Rue (n 8) para 85.

97 Jenny Wilson, ‘United Nations Report Declares Internet Access a Human Right’, Time, 7 June 2011, http://techland.time.com/2011/06/07/united-nations-report-declares-internet-access-a-human-right.

98 Vince Cerf, ‘Internet Access Is Not a Human Right’, The New York Times, 4 January 2012, 25–26.

99 Wellman, Carl, The Proliferation of Rights: Moral Progress or Empty Rhetoric? (Westview Press 1999)Google Scholar.

100 Mathiesen (n 9).

101 Griffin, James, On Human Rights (1st edn, Oxford University Press 2009)Google Scholar; Mathiesen (n 9).

102 Cerf (n 98) 25.

103 Wellman (n 99).

104 Alexander Timmer, ‘Report – State-of-the-art Literature Review: Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law’ (2013), Frame (Fostering Human Rights Among European Policies), Large-Scale FP7 Collaborative Project, GA No. 320000.

105 Tully, Stephen, ‘The Human Right to Access Electricity’ (2006) 19 The Electricity Journal 3, 30–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

106 La Rue (n 8); UN Human Rights Council (n 60).

107 Packingham v State of North Carolina (n 20); Conseil constitutionnel (n 63); George v Union of India (n 57).

108 Tully (n 105).

109 Kemp (n 3).

110 ibid.

111 Mathiesen (n 9).

112 Hopkins, Andrew T, ‘Right To Be Online: Europe's Recognition of Due Process and Proportionality Requirements in Cases of Individual Internet Disconnections’ (2010) 17 Columbia Journal of European Law 557Google Scholar.

113 Cerf (n 98).

114 Mathiesen (n 9) 17.

115 ibid.

116 Anderson, Gillian and Whalley, Jason, ‘Public Library Internet Access in Areas of Deprivation: The Case of Glasgow’ (2015) 32 Telematics and Informatics 521CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

117 Sarah Morris, ‘Spain Government to Guarantee Legal Right to Broadband’, Reuters, 17 November 2009, https://www.reuters.com/article/spain-telecoms/spain-govt-to-guarantee-legal-right-to-broadband-idUSLH61554320091117.

118 Johnson (n 69).

119 Syntagma (n 68).

120 Guzm, Fallas and Vila v Ministry of Environment, Energy and Telecommunications, Judgment 12790 of the Supreme Court, File 09-013141-0007-CO, 30 July 2010 (Costa Rica).

121 Conseil constitutionnel (n 63).