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Human Rights in Israel

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 July 2014

Aharon Barak
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Abstract

This Article discusses the normative basis for the protection of human rights in Israel and discusses various effects of the Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty enacted in 1992. The Article points out that this “constitutional revolution” affected not only the judiciary, which enforces the protection of human rights, but both the executive and the legislative branches that have also internalized the constitutional revolution, by carefully evaluating every bill proposed and every other government action to ensure that it passes constitutional muster. Additionally, the Article discusses the effect of the constitutional revolution on public discourse in Israel. A central part of the discussion is devoted to the role of the protection of human rights in the territories occupied by Israel since 1967, and to the role of the protection of human rights during periods of terror activities.

Type
Research Article
Information
Israel Law Review , Volume 39 , Issue 2 , Summer 2006 , pp. 12 - 34
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and The Faculty of Law, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem 2006

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Footnotes

*

President of the Israeli Supreme Court.

References

1 See Hirschl, Ran, Israel's “Constitutional Revolution”: The Legal Interpretation of Entrenched Civil Liberties in an Emerging Neo-Liberal Economic Order, 46 Am. J. Comp. L. 427 (1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; 12 Yoram Dinstein, Israel Yearbook on Human Rights (1982)Google Scholar; Israeli, Raphael & Ehrenfeld, Rachel, Between the Peak and the Pit: Human Rights in Israel, 13 Syracuse J. Int'l L. & Com. 403 (1987)Google Scholar; Englard, Izhak, Uri and Caroline Bauer Memorial Lecture: Human Dignity: From Antiquity to Modern Israel's Constitutional Framework, 21 Cardozo L. Rev. 1903 (1999)Google Scholar; Zakheim, Roger I., Israel in the Human Rights Era: Finding a Moral Justification for the Jewish State, 36 N.Y.U. J. Int'l L. & Pol. 1005 (2004)Google Scholar; Bracha, Baruch, Constitutional Upgrading of Human Rights in Israel: The Impact on Administrative Law, 3 U. Pa. J. Const. L. 581 (2001)Google Scholar; Goldstein, Stephen, Protection of Human Rights by Judges: The Israeli Experience, 38 St. Louis L.J. 605 (1993)Google Scholar; Barak-Erez, Daphna, From an Unwritten to a Written Constitution: The Israeli Challenge in American Perspective, 26 Colum. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 309 (1995)Google Scholar.

2 This approach was primarily developed in HCJ 73/53 Kol Ha'am Ltd. v. The Minister of Interior, [1953] IsrSC 7 871, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/53/730/000/z01/53000730.z01.htm (last visited June 1, 2006), and since then it was embraced in numerous judgments. See Barak, Aharon, President Agranat: “Kol Ha'am”—The Voice of the People, in Essays in Honor of Shimon Agranat 129 (Gavison, Ruth & Kremnitzer, Mordechi eds., 1986)Google Scholar [in Hebrew]; Barak, Aharon, 1 Selected Essays 575 (Cohen, C. & Zamir, Y. eds., 2002)Google Scholar [in Hebrew]; Barak, Aharon, Constitutional Law Without A Constitution: The Role of the Judiciary, in The Role of Courts in Society 448 (Shetreet, Shimon ed., 1988)Google Scholar; Segal, Zeev, A Constitution Without a Constitution: The Israeli Experience and the American Impact, 21 Cap. U. L. Rev. 1 (1992)Google Scholar.

3 See Barak, Aharon, Purposive Interpretation in Law (2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 See HCJ 75/76 “Hilron” v. The Fruit Council [1976] IsrSC 30(3) 645; CFH 9/77 Israel Electric Company Ltd. v. “Ha'aretz” Newspaper Publishing Ltd. [1978] IsrSC 32(3) 337, 359, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/77/090/000/z01/77000090.z01.HTM (last visited June 1, 2006); HCJ 390/79 Duikat v. The Government of Israel [1979] IsrSC 34(1).

5 See CA 524/88 “Pri Ha'emek” v. Sde Yaacov [1991] IsrSC 45(4) 529, 561; CA 696/81 Azulai v. The State of Israel [1983] IsrSC 37(2) 565; CFH 13/85 The Municipality of Tel- Aviv-Jaffa v. Lubin [1985] IsrSC 13 118, 122.

6 See HCJ 1/49 Bejerano v. The Minister of Police [1949] IsrSC 2, 80; HCJ 337/81 Miterani v. The Minister of Transportation [1983] IsrSC 37(3) 337; LTA 3126/00 The State of Israel v. ESHET Projects Management [2003] IsrSC 57(3) 220; HCJ 6051/95 Rekanat v. The National Labor Court [1997] IsrSC 51 (3) 289; CA 6821/93 United Mizrachi Bank v. Migdal Agricultural Cooperative [1995] IsrSC 49(4) 221.

7 See Kol Ha'am Ltd. v. The Minister of Interior, supra note 2; Israel Electric Company Ltd. v. “Ha'aretz” Newspaper Publishing Ltd. supra note 4, at 361; Barak, Aharon, Foreword: A Judge on Judging: The Role of a Supreme Court in a Democracy, 116 Harv. L. Rev. 16, 93 (2002)Google Scholar.

8 The Press Ordinance, 1929-5689 70 LSI 1191 (Isr.).

9 See id. at Sec 19.

10 See Kol Ha'am Ltd. v. The Minister of Interior, supra note 2, at 888-889.

11 See HCJ 680/88 Schnitzer v. The Chief Military Censor [1989] IsrSC 42(4) 617.

12 See HCJ 5016/96 Horev v. The Minister of Transportation [1997] IsrSC 51(4) 1; HCJ 6055/95 Sagi Tzemach v. The Minister of Defense [1999] IsrSC 53(5) 241, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files _eng/95/550/060/i15/95060550.i15.htm (last visited June 6, 2006).

13 See Markoe, Zaharah R., Expressing Oneself Without a Constitution: The Israeli Story, 8 Cardozo J. Int'l & Comp. L. 319 (2000)Google Scholar; Weitzman, Avi, A Tale of Two Cities: Yitzhak Rabin's Assassination, Free Speech, and Israel's Religious-Secular Kulturkampf, 15 Emory Int'l L. Rev. 1 (2001)Google Scholar; Porat, Iddo & Rosen-Zvi, Issachar, Who's Afraid of Channel 7?: Ideological Radio and Freedom of Speech in Israel, 38 Stan. J. Int'l L. 79 (2002)Google Scholar.

14 See Hilron v. The Fruit Council, supra note 4; HCJ 14/78 Agbaria v. The Fruit Council [1978] IsrSC 32(3) 794; HCJ 338/78 Margaliyot v. The Minister of Justice [1978] IsrSC 42(1) 112.

15 See HCJ 672/87 Atmalla v. The Northern Commander [1989] IsrSC 42(4) 708; HCJ 448/85 Dahar v. Peretz [1986] IsrSC 40(2) 401.

16 See HCJ 47/82 Progressive Judaism Movement Fund v. The Minister of Religions [1989] IsrSC 43(2) 661; CA 450/70 Rogosinsky v. The State of Israel [1971] IsrSC 26(1) 129;

17 HCJ 5432/03 SHIN for Equal Representation of Women v. The Board for Cable and Satellite Broadcasting [2004] IsrSC 58(3) 65; HCJ 721/94 EL-AL Israel Airlines v. Danielowitz [1994] IsrSC 48(5) 749; HCJ 4541/94 Miller v. The Minister of Defense [1995] IsrSC 49(4) 94.

18 See Segal, Ze'ev, Standing Before the Supreme Court Sitting as a High Court of Justice (2nd ed. 1993)Google Scholar [in Hebrew].

19 See HCJ 852/96 Alony v. The Minister of Justice [1987] IsrSC 41(2) 1; HCJ 3267/97 Rubinstein v. The Minister of Defense [2000] IsrSC 52(5) 481.

20 See HCJ 448/81 Ressler v. The Minister of Defense [1981] IsrSC 36(1) 81; CA 6991/95 Plonit v. The State Attorney [1996] IsrSC 49(4) 210; HCJ 2915/96 Heykind v. The State Attorney [1996] IsrSC 50(1) 818.

21 See HCJ 606/78 Iyub v. The Minister of Defense [1978] IsrSC 33(2) 113; Duikat v. The Government of Israel, supra note 4.

22 See United Mizrachi Bank v. Migdal Agricultural Cooperative, supra note 6.

23 See HCJ 5578/02 Manor v. The Minister of Finance [2004] IsrSC 59(1) 729; HCJ 4806/94 De.Sh.E. Quality of Environment Ltd. v. The Minister of Finance [1998] IsrSC 52(2) 193; CFH 1333/02 Local Committee of Planning and Building v. Horowitz [12.05.2004] (not yet published); HCJ 3434/96 Hofnong v. The Chairman of the Knesset [1996] IsrSC 50(3) 57; HCJ 4769/95 Ron v. The Minister of Transportation [2002] IsrSC 57(1) 235.

24 See Sec 8 of the Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty 1391 LSI 150 (1992) (Isr.); See also Sec. 4 of the Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation 1454 LSI 90 (1994) (Isr.).

25 See Sec. 11 of the Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty, id. See also Sec. 5 of the Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation, id.

26 The Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty, id. sec. 10.

27 See United Mizrachi Bank v. Migdal Agricultural Cooperative, supra note 6, at 294; Joseph, Philip A., Constitutional and Administrative Law in New Zealand 861 (1993)Google Scholar.

28 See The Human Rights Act, 1998, § 3 (Eng.).

29 Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982 (Charter of Rights and Freedoms, § 52(1)) (Can.).

30 Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137 (1803).

31 See The Basic Law: The Knesset 244 LSI 69 (1958) (Isr.); The Basic Law: Israel Lands 312 LSI 56 (1960) (Isr.); The Basic Law: The President of the State 428 LSI 118 (1964) (Isr.); The Basic Law: The Government 1780 LSI 158 (2001) (Isr.); The Basic Law: The State Economy 777 LSI 207 (1975) (Isr.); The Basic Law: The Military 806 LSI 154 (1976) (Isr.); The Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel 980 LSI 186 (1980) (Isr.); The Basic Law: The Judiciary 1110 LSI I 78 (1984)(Isr.); The Basic Law: The State Comptroller 1237 LSI 30 (1988) (Isr.).

32 See HCJ 98/69 Bergman v. The Minister of Finance [1969] IsrSC 23(1) 963, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/69/980/000/z01/69000980.z01.htm (last visited June 4, 2006); HCJ 148/73 Keniel v. The Minister of Justice [1973] IsrSC 23(1) 794; HCJ 179/82 Ressler v. The Minister of Defense [1983] IsrSC 36(4) 421.

33 See United Mizrachi Bank v. Migdal Agricultural Cooperative, supra note 6.

34 See Tzemach v. The Minister of Defense, supra note 12; HCJ 1030/99 Oron v. The Chairman of the Knesset [2002] IsrSC 56(3) 640; HCJ 1661/05 The Gaza Coast Regional Council v. The Knesset [09.06.2005] (not yet published). This new approach has been applied also in regard to the entire corpus of Basic Laws. See HCJ 212/03 Herut v. The Chairman of the Central Elections Committee [2003] IsrSC 57(1) 750 English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/ files_eng/03/120/002/a04/03002120.a04.HTM (last visited June 4, 2006); HCJ 344/81 Negbi v. Central Elections Committee [1981] IsrSC 35(4) 837; HCJ 637/88 La'or Movement v. The Chairman of the Central Elections Committee for the Knesset [1988] IsrSC 42(3) 495; HCJ 2208/02 Salame v. The Minister of the Interior [2002] IsrSC 56(5) 590.

35 See The Gaza Coast Regional Council v. The Knesset, id.

36 See Barak, Aharon, The Constitutional Revolution—12th Anniversary, 1 L. & Bus. 3 (2004)Google Scholar [in Hebrew];

37 See Barak, Aharon, The Constitutionalization of the Israeli Legal System as Result of the Basic Laws and its Effect on Procedural and Substantive Criminal Law, 31 Isr. L. Rev. 3 (1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 See United Mizrachi Bank v. Migdal Agricultural Cooperative, supra note 6 at 457-458; R. v. Oakes [1986] 1 SCR 103.

39 See CA 537/95 Ganimat v. The State of Israel [1995] IsrSC 49(3) 355; CFH 2316/95 Ganimat v. The State of Israel [1995] IsrSC 49(4) 589; HCJ 1384/98 Avni v. The Prime Minister [1998] IsrSC 52(5) 206.

40 See Barak, Aharon, 3 Interpretation in Law 435 (1994)Google Scholar [in Hebrew]; Barak, supra note 3.

41 See Human Rights in Private Law (Friedmann, Daniel & Barak-Erez, Daphna eds., 2001)Google Scholar; Deutch, Miguel, Unfair Competition and the “Misappropriation Doctrine”—A Renewed Analysis, 48 St. Louis L.J. 503 Google Scholar, and references therein.

42 See, e.g., a speech made by the chairman of the Constitution, Law and Justice Committee, Constitution, Law and Justice Committee, Mr. Michael Eitan, on the sitting of 17/7/2002, protocol no. 509.

43 See Private Bill 687, Basic Law: Constitution Court, 19.5.2003 by MK Eliezer Cohen; Private Bill 3393 Constitution Court—2002, 4.2.2003, by MK Eliezer Cohen; Private Bill 3380, Constitution Court—2002, 28.2.2002 by MK Yigal Bibi; Private Bill 1875, Basic Law: Constitution Court, 12.6.2000 by MK Eliezer Cohen; Private Bill 994, Basic Law: Constitution Court, 23.6.2003 by MK Amnon Cohen.

44 See Private Bill 1341, Basic Law: Judiciary (amendment—judges' appointment to the Supreme Court), 31.7.2003 by MK David Tal; Private Bill 1224, The Basic Law: Judiciary (amendment—appointment process), 21.7.2003 by MK Rony Bar-On; Private Bill 980, The Basic Law: Judiciary (amendment—panel of Supreme Court's judges appointment committee), 23.6.2003 by MK Nisan Slominsky; Private Bill 1341, Basic Law: Judiciary (amendment—panel members of Supreme Court's judges appointment committee), 9.6.2003 by MK Yuli Tamir; Private Bill 2574, Basic Law: Judiciary (amendment—judges' appointment committee), 5.3.2001 by MK Yigal Bibi.

45 See Basic Law: The Judiciary, supra note 31, at Sec. 4(2).

46 See Hogg, Peter W., Interpreting the Charter of Rights: Generosity and Justification, 28 Osgoode Hall L.J. 817 (1990)Google Scholar.

47 See Karpe, Judith, Basic Law: Dignity and Liberty—Biography of Power Struggles, 1 L. & Gov't 232 (1993)Google Scholar [in Hebrew].

48 See PPA 4463/94 Golan v. The Prison Services [1996] IsrSC 52(5) 826; CA 105/92; HCJ 205/94 Nof v. The Minister of Defense [1997] IsrSC 50(5) 449 English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/94/050/002/z01/94002050.z01.htm (last visited June 4, 2006); EL-AL Israel Airlines v. Danielowitz, supra note 17; Miller v. The Minister of Defense, supra note 17.

49 See HCJ 7015/02 Ajuri v. The IDF Commander [2002] IsrSC 56(6) 352, English translation, available at http://elyonl. Court.gov.il/files_eng/02/150/070/a15/02070150.a15.HTM (last visited June 4, 2006); HCJ 2006/97 Janimat v. The Central Commander [1997] IsrSC 51 (2) 651; CA 4920/02 Federman v. The State of Israel [20.06.2002] (unpublished); CFH 7048/97 A v. The Minister of Defense [2000] IsrSC 54 (1) 721.

50 See supra note 17.

51 See Golan v. The Prison Services, supra note 48; CA 105/92 Re'em Engineer Contractors v. Nazareth-Ilit Municipality [1993] IsrSC 57 (5) 19.

52 See HCJ 2599/00 Yated v. The Ministry of Education [2002] IsrSC 56 (5) 834; HCJ 7715, 1554/95 Shoharie Gilat v. The Minister of Education and Culture [1996] IsrSC 50 (3) 2; Barak, Aharon, Forward, in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Israel (Rabin, Y. & Shany, Y., eds., 2005 Google Scholar [in Hebrew]; HCJ 366/03 Commitment to Peace and Social Justice Movement v. The Minister of Finance [12.12.2005] (not yet published).

53 See Manor v. The Minister of Finance supra note 23; LTA 4905/98 Gamzu v. Yeshayahu [2001] IsrSC 55 (3)360.

54 For this differentiation see Barak, supra note 40, at 361-364.

55 See Grimm, Dieter, The Protective Function of The State, in European and US Constitutionalism 137 (Nolte, Georg ed., 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

56 See HCJ 2056/04 Beit Sourik Village Council v. The Government of Israel [2004] IsrSC 58(5) 807, English translation available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/04/560/020/a28/04020560.a28.htm (last visited June 4, 2006); HCJ 1715/97 Investment Managers' Chambers v. The Minister of Finance [1997] IsrSC 51 (4) 367; Dorner, Dahlia, Proportionalism, in Berenson Book 281 (2000)Google Scholar [in Hebrew].

57 See, e.g., Kretzmer, David, The Occupation of Justice: The Supreme Court of Israel and the Occupied Territories 61–160 (2002)Google Scholar.

58 See Barak, Aharon, The Role of a Supreme Court in a Democracy, and the Fight Against Terrorism, 58 U. Miami L. Rev. 125, 130 (2003)Google Scholar.

59 On “black holes,” see Steyn, Johan, Guantanamo Bay: The Legal Black Hole, in Democracy Through Law 195 (Steyn, J. ed., 2004)Google Scholar.

60 See HCJ 7957/04 Mara'abe v. The Prime Minister of Israel [2004] (not yet published); Ajuri v. The IDF Commander, supra note 49; HCJ 3239/02 Marab v. The IDF Commander in the West Bank [2003] IsrSC 57 (2) 349, English translation available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/02/24390/032/a04/02032390.a04.htm (last visited June 4, 2006); HCJ 3451/02, Almadani v. The IDF Commander in Judea & Samaria [2002] IsrSC 56 (3) 30, 36, English translation available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng /02/510/034/a06/02034510.a06.htm (last visited, June 4, 2006); HCJ 3278/02 Center for Defense of the Individual v. The IDF Commander, [2002] IsrSC 57 (1) 385, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/02/780/032/a06/02032780.a06.htm (last visited June 4, 2006).

61 See HCJ 3114/02 Barakeh v. The Minister of Defense [2002] IsrSC 56 (3) 11, 16, English translation available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/file_eng/02/140/031/a02/02031140.a02.htm (last visited June 4, 2006)); Almadani v. IDF Commander in Judea & Samaria, id. at 60, 36.

62 See HCJ 1005/89 Aga v. The Commander of IDF forces in Gaza [1990] IsrSC 44 (1) 536; HCJ 4764/04 Doctors for Human Rights v. Commander of IDF forces in Gaza [2004] IsrSC 58 (5) 398, English translation available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il /files_eng/04/640/047/a03/04047640.a03.htm (last visited June 4, 2006).

63 See HCJ 3799/02 Adala v. The Central Commander [22.05.2002] (published); Ajuri v. The IDF Commander, supra note 49; Almadani v. IDF Commander in Judea & Samaria, supra note 60, at 30, 34–35.

64 See The Gaza Coast Regional Council v. The Knesset, supra note 34.

65 See HCJ 769/02 Public Committee Against Torture in Israel v. The Government of Israel [2003] IsrSC 57 (6) 285.

66 See Mara'abe v. The Prime Minister of Israel, supra note 60.

67 See International Court of Justice, July 9, 2004 Legal Consequences Of The Construction Of A Wall In The Occupied Palestinian Territory (Adv. Op., 9.7.04), 43 IL M 1009 (2004). For further inquiry on the subject, see 99 Am. J. Int'l. L. and 38 (1-2) Isr. L. Rev. (2004) special issues devoted to the decision of the ICJ in The Hague and the High Court of Justice in Israel on the Separation Barrier.

68 See Mara'abe v. The Prime Minister of Israel, supra note 60, at para. 17.

69 See HCJ 316/03 Muhammad Bakri v. The Israel Film Council [2003] IsrSC 58 (1) 249, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/files_eng/03/160/003/115/03003160.115.htm) (last visited June 4, 2006); HCJ 651/03 Association for Civil Rights in Israel v. The Chairman of the Elections for the Sixteenth Knesset [2003] IsrSC 57 (2) 62, English translation available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il / files_eng/03/510/006/r02/03006510.r02.htm (last visited June 4, 2006).

70 See Barak, supra note 7, at 16.

71 See Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214, 245 (1944).

72 See Liversidge v. Anderson, 3 All E.R. 338, 361 (1941).

73 See Sajo, Andras, Militant Democracy (2004)Google Scholar.

74 See Cicero, , Pro Milone 16 (Watts, N.H. trans., Harvard Univ. Press, 5th ed. 1972)Google Scholar.

73 But cf. Rehnquist, William. H., All the Laws But One: Civil Liberties in Wartime 224 (1998)Google Scholar (arguing that Cicero's approach reflects reality).

76 See Abbasi v. Sec'y of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (2002) EWCA Civ 1958: “[W]e do not find it possible to approach this claim for judicial review other than on the basis that, in apparent contravention of fundamental principles recognized by both jurisdictions and by international law, Mr. Abbasi is at present arbitrarily detained in a ‘legal black-hole.’” (Lord Phillips M.R.)

77 See Koh, Harold Hongju, The Spirit of the Laws, 43 Harv. Int'l L.J. 23 (2002)Google Scholar:

In the days since, I have been struck by how many Americans—and how many lawyers—seem to have concluded that, somehow, the destruction of four planes and three buildings has taken us back to a state of nature in which there are no laws or rules. In fact, over the years, we have developed an elaborate system of domestic and international laws, institutions, regimes, and decision-making procedures precisely so that they will be consulted and obeyed, not ignored, at a time like this.

78 See HCJ 168/91 Morcos v. Minister of Defense [1991] IsrSC 45 (1) 467, 470–71.

79 See HCJ 320/80 Kwasama v. The Minister of Defense [1980] IsrSC 5 (3) 113, 132.

80 See Almadani v. The IDF Commander in Judea & Samaria, supra note 60.

81 See HCJ 5100/94 Pubic Committee Against Torture in Israel v. The Government of Israel [1999] IsrSC 53 (4) 817, English translation, available at http://elyonl.court.gov.il/ files_eng/94/000/051/a09/94051000.a09.htm (last visited June 4, 2006).

82 Id. at 845.

83 See Barak, Aharon, Judicial Discretion (1987)Google Scholar; Vila, Maria I., Facing Judicial Discretion: Legal Knowledge and Right Answers Revisited (2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

84 See Barak, supra note 7.

85 See generally Cappelletti, Mauro, Judicial Review in the Contemporary World 45 (1971)Google Scholar; Constitutionalism and Democracy: Transitions in the Contemporary World (Douglas Greenberg, Katz, Stanley N., Oliviero, Melanie Beth, & Wheatley, Steven C. eds., 1993)Google Scholar; The Global Expansion of Judicial Power (Tate, C. Neal & Vallinder, Torbjorn eds., 1995)Google Scholar; Angel, Marina, Constitutional Judicial Review of Legislation: A Comparative Law Symposium, 56 Temp. L. Q. 287 (1983)Google Scholar.

86 See HCJ 5364/94 Velner v. The Chairman of the Israeli Labor Party [1995] IsrSC 49 (1) 78, 808.

87 See Kirby, Michael, Australian Law—After 11 September 2001, 21 Austl. B. Rev. 21 (2001)Google Scholar; SirMason, Anthony, A Bill of Rights for Australia?, 5 Austl. B. Rev. 79, 80 (1989)Google Scholar; McLachlin, Beverley, The Role of the Supreme Court in the New Democracy 13–15 (2001)Google Scholar (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Harvard Law School Library).

88 See The Global Expansion of Judicial Power, supra note 85, at 1-5.

89 See Barak, supra note 7, at 62-115.

90 See Barak, supra, note 3.

91 On Balancing, see Barak, supra note 7, at 93.

92 See Alexy, Robert, A Theory of Constitutional Rights (Rivers, Julian trans., 2002)Google Scholar.

93 On the distinction between balancing and categorization, see Sullivan, Kathleen M., Post-Liberal Judging: The Role of Categorization and Balancing, 63 U. Colo. L. Rev. 293 (1992)Google Scholar.

94 See supra notes 14-17.

95 See supra note 19.

96 See Article 38 of The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996.

97 See Cassels, Jamie, Judicial Activism and Public Interest Litigation in India: Attempting the Impossible, 37 Am. J. Comp. L. 495 (1989)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.