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The 1859 revival and its enemies: opposition to religious revivalism within Ulster Presbyterianism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 July 2016

Daniel Ritchie
Daniel Ritchie*
Affiliation:
University College Dublin
*
* School of History and Archives, University College Dublin, [email protected].
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Abstract

The evangelical revival of 1859 remains a pivotal event in the religious culture of Ulster Protestants owing to its legacy of widespread conversion, church renewal, and its role in shaping the pan-Protestantism of Ulster society that later opposed Irish home rule. Being part of a wider transatlantic movement of religious awakening, the 1859 revival was seen as the culmination of thirty years of evangelical renewal within Irish Presbyterianism. What has often been overlooked, however, is the fact that many aspects of the revival were deeply troubling to orthodox Presbyterians. Although most Ulster Presbyterians were largely supportive of the movement, an intellectually significant minority dissented from what they saw as its spectacular, doctrinal, liturgical, ecclesiological, and moral aberrations. Given 1859’s mythological status among Ulster evangelicals, it is normally assumed that all who opposed the revival were either religious formalists or those of heterodox doctrinal opinions. It will be argued that such an assumption is deeply misguided, and that the Presbyterian opponents of 1859 were motivated by zeal for confessional Reformed theology and Presbyterian church-order. By focusing on theologically conservative opposition to an ostensible evangelical and Calvinistic awakening, this article represents a significant contribution to the existing historiography of not only the Ulster revival but of religious revivalism more generally. It also helps us to understand the long-term evolution of Ulster Presbyterian belief and practice in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Type
Research Article
Information
Irish Historical Studies , Volume 40 , Issue 157 , May 2016 , pp. 66 - 91
Copyright
© Irish Historical Studies Publications Ltd 

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Footnotes

The author is a Government of Ireland Irish Research Council Post-Doctoral Fellow at the School of History, University College Dublin.

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28 Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 56, 285–6. The accounts of the revival at Omagh in the local newspaper stress the paucity of physical excitement in this district: Tyrone Constitution, 24 June, 8, 29 July, 19, 26 Aug. 1859.

29 Hamilton, Scriptural character, p. 37; cf. pp 26, 63.

30 Westminster Confession, X:4.

31 McCosh, Ulster revival, p. 10.

32 Northern Whig, 8 June 1859; ‘The religious excitement in Ireland’ in Reformed Presbyterian, v (1860), p. 8. Except where indicated, the term Covenanter in this essay refers to Reformed Presbyterians, a significantly smaller body than the P.C.I., as opposed to seventeenth-century Scottish Covenanters.

33 Minutes of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, ii (1859), pp 773–4; cf. Moore, Revival in Ballymena, p. 24.

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38 Londonderry Standard, 15 Sep. 1859; J. P. Wilson, ‘The revival – Cookstown’ in Missionary Herald (1860), p. 512.

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47 Gibson, Year of grace, p. 281.

48 Dobbin, Remarks, pp 18–19.

49 Nelson, Year of delusion, p. 222; idem, Person and work, p. 17; Dobbin, Remarks, p. 6; cf. Belfast Daily Mercury, 17 Sep. 1859.

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51 Dobbin, Remarks, pp 6–7. Marcionism and Manichaeism were early dualistic theological movements, which separated salvation from creation or the salvation of the soul from that of the body: Ferguson, S. B. and Wright, D. F. (eds), New dictionary of theology (Leicester, 1988), pp 411–412Google Scholar.

52 Belfast Daily Mercury, 17 Sep. 1859; Belfast Morning News, 19 Sep. 1859.

53 Nelson, Year of delusion, pp 29–30, 51, 98; Anon., Revivalism and Mormonism, p. 8; cf. Morgan, Thoughts on the revival, pp 4–5; McCann, Strikings down, pp 3–4; Belfast Daily Mercury, 14, 15 Sep. 1859; Northern Whig, 13 Sep. 1859; Belfast Morning News, 21 Sep. 1859.

54 Nelson, Year of delusion, p. 52.

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60 Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 39–51; Nelson, Year of delusion, p. 279. See the accounts of events in Acts of the Apostles, chapters two and sixteen.

61 Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 46–7, 51. See also Nelson’s comments at the General Assembly in Northern Whig, 5 July 1865.

62 Hamilton, Scriptural character, p. 149.

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70 Bebbington, Victorian religious revivals, pp 178–9, 186.

71 Quoted in Nelson, Year of delusion, p. 43. S. J. Moore admitted to the General Assembly that this opinion was prevalent among some revival converts: Belfast Morning News, 11 July 1859.

72 Dobbin, Truth regarding, pp 6–25; idem, Remarks, pp 4, 10–18; idem, False assurance condemned, pp 10–11; idem, ‘Assurance of faith’ in Evangelical Witness and Presbyterian Review (Nov. 1867), p. 305.

73 Dobbin, William, The witness of the Spirit to a believer’s adoption not direct or immediate (Ballymena, 1867), pp 3, 7–8Google Scholar; idem, False assurance condemned, p. 5; idem, Nature and grounds, pp 24-6, 30–2; Londonderry Standard, 15 Apr. 1865; Nelson, Isaac, An answer to the Rev. John Macnaughtan’s defence of revivalism, assurance, and the witness of the Spirit (Belfast, 1867), pp 34–35Google Scholar; idem, An answer to the Rev. Professor Killen’s defence of revivalism, assurance, and the witness of the Spirit (Belfast, 1867), pp 17–18; idem, Person and work, pp 22–3, 29–30; McKee, W. J. H., ‘A critical examination of the doctrine of assurance in revivalism, with particular reference to the revival in Ulster in 1859’ (Ph.D. thesis, Queen’s University Belfast, 1988), p. 349Google Scholar.

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75 For a claim that persons received assurance immediately at the time of their conversion, see Adams, Revival at Ahoghill, p. 14.

76 Dobbin, Nature and grounds, pp 22–4; idem, Truth regarding, pp 26–9; idem, False assurance condemned, pp 5–6, 15–16; Northern Whig, 14 June 1865; Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 179–80, 227–8; Nelson, Isaac, Rev. I. Nelson’s speech at General Assembly on the doctrine of assurance (Belfast, 1866), p. 6Google Scholar; idem, Person and work, p. 23; idem, Answer to Macnaughtan, pp 3–40; idem, Year of delusion, pp 165–6. Antinomianism, which is the idea that a Christian is not bound by the moral law, was more usually charged as a consequence of Calvinism rather than Arminianism.

77 Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 8, 76–81; Nelson, Year of delusion, pp 41–2.

78 Ballymena Observer, 26 Mar. 1859.

79 Dobbin, Remarks, p. 9; cf. Belfast News-Letter, 29 Sep. 1859.

80 Thompson, Joseph, ‘Aspects of evangelisation in Irish Presbyterianism, 1880–1965’ (M.Th. thesis, Queen’s University Belfast, 1971), pp 267–269Google Scholar; McKee, ‘Assurance in revivalism’, pp 5–6, 152–3; Davey, J. E., The story of a hundred years (Belfast, 1940), p. 45Google Scholar.

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82 Anon., , The philosophy of revivals (London, 1860)Google Scholar in Barnes (ed.), History of the 1859 Ulster revival, vi, 89; ‘Literature’ in Original Secession Magazine, vii (1865), p. 102; ‘The Spirit’s work in reviving religion’, Covenanter, iv (Feb. 1860), pp 50–1; Nelson, Year of delusion, p. 38; Brown, ‘Presbyterian communities’, p. 99.

83 See ‘Report on the state of religion’ in Missionary Herald (1859), p. 402; J. W. Massie, A visit to the scenes of revival in Ireland (London, 1859), p. 54; Gibson, Year of grace, p. 34; Robert Crawford, Full assurance (Belfast, 1864), p. 6.

84 Although the process of seeking salvation might last a long time for Methodists, the precise moment of conversion was both sudden and occurred at a known time: Bebbington, Victorian religious revivals, p. 10.

85 McKee, David, Some remarks on conversion (Belfast, 1836), pp 9–11Google Scholar; Holmes, ‘Experience and understanding’, p. 369; idem, Shaping, p. 197; idem, ‘Tradition and enlightenment: conversion and assurance of salvation in Ulster Presbyterianism, 1700–1859’ in Brown, Michael, McGrath, C. I. and Power, T. P. (eds), Converts and conversion in Ireland, 1650–1850 (Dublin, 2005), pp 153–154Google Scholar.

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87 For Finneyite revivalism (from the U.S. evangelist Charles G. Finney) see Jeffrey, When the Lord walked the land, pp 14–21; Hambrick-Stowe, C. E., Charles G. Finney and the spirit of American evangelicalism (Grand Rapids, 1996)Google Scholar.

88 Even the revival-supporter, W. B. Kirkpatrick, warned the 1860 General Assembly that this practice was dangerous: ‘Report on the state of religion’ in Missionary Herald (1860), p. 635.

89 Hamilton, Scriptural character, p. 83; cf. Dobbin, Truth regarding, pp 6, 28; Nelson, Year of delusion, p. 75; Gibson, Year of grace, p. 28; Bell, T. B., Notes on the revival at Newton-Ards (Edinburgh, 1859), p. 16Google Scholar.

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91 Jeffrey, When the Lord walked the land, pp 207–9, 216–17, 224–9; cf. Dickson, N. T. R., Brethren in Scotland 1838–2000: a social study of an evangelical movement (Carlisle, 2002), pp 69–72Google Scholar.

92 Brooke, Peter, Ulster Presbyterianism: the historical perspective (2nd edn, Belfast, 1994), p. 159Google Scholar; Hempton and Hill, Evangelical Protestantism, p. 155; Hill, ‘Ulster awakened’, p. 456; Holmes, ‘Revivalism and fundamentalism’, pp 256–7; Fleming, N. C. and O’Day, Alan, The Longman handbook of modern Irish history since 1800 (Harlow, 2005), pp 261–264Google Scholar.

93 Witherow, Thomas, The subjects of Christian baptism (Belfast, [1860]), p. 5Google Scholar; cf. idem, Words of truth and soberness (Belfast, [1859]), p. 8. See also the Presbytery of Magherafelt’s resolutions against sectarian doctrines (Witherow was the clerk) in Tyrone Constitution, 14 Aug. 1863.

94 Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 173–87.

95 ‘The Spirit’s work in reviving religion’ in Covenanter, iv (1860), pp 50–1; Minutes of several conversations between the Methodist ministers in the connexion established by the late Rev. John Wesley (Dublin, 1860), p. 51; cf. Dobbin, Truth regarding, p. 29.

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97 Banner of Ulster, 23 June 1859; Seaver, Ulster revival, p. 10; Arthur, Revival in Ballymena and Coleraine, p. 9; Moore, Revival in Ballymena, p. 4.

98 Belfast Morning News, 22 Sep. 1859; Northern Whig, 23 Sep. 1859; Banner of Ulster, 24 Sep. 1859. Myrtle Hill has argued, however, that the degree of inter-denominational cooperation has been over-stated, and that most groups responded to the movement by opening their own churches for revival enthusiasm: Hill, ‘Ulster awakened’, p. 454.

99 Anon., Revivalism and Mormonism, pp 9–10; cf. Anon., Council of devils, p. 11.

100 Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 276–8. For examples of such cooperation in Hamilton’s locality, see Tyrone Constitution, 8, 22 July, 12, 19, 26 Aug., 16 Sep. 1859.

101 Nelson, Year of delusion, pp 203–4; Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 7, 295–6.

102 Gibson, Year of grace, p. 7; Nelson, Year of delusion, pp 38–9; cf. Belfast Morning News, 13 July 1859.

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104 Nelson, Year of delusion, p. 180; Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 88–9, 180–1.

105 Nelson, Year of delusion, pp 166, 250; see later comments by Nelson in Witness, 11 Feb. 1876; Northern Whig, 31 May 1880.

106 See Cooke and Edgar’s prefaces to The true psalmody (Belfast, 1861); Londonderry Standard, 24 Jan. 1861; Hanna, Hugh, A whole Bible in the worship of God (Belfast, 1861), pp 3–15Google Scholar; Belfast News-Letter, 2 Jan. 1860; Coleraine Chronicle, 1 Nov. 1862; Robinson, William, The importance of religion (Belfast, 1859), p. 10nGoogle Scholar.

107 Book of the constitution and discipline of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland (Belfast, 1859), p. 67.

108 The constitution and discipline of the Presbyterian Church (Belfast, 1841), p. 73; Holmes, Shaping, pp 123–5.

109 Seaver, Ulster revival, p. 9; cf. ‘Revival facts’ in Missionary Herald (1859), p. 459. See Henry Cooke’s comments in Belfast News-Letter, 11 July, 1 Oct. 1859.

110 Thompson, Joseph, ‘The influence of D. L. Moody on Irish Presbyterianism’ in W. D. Patton (ed.), Ebb and flow: essays in church history in honour of R. Finlay G. Holmes (Belfast 2002), p. 132Google Scholar; Houston, Thomas, Plymouthism & revivalism (2nd edn, Belfast, [1874]), pp 30–31Google Scholar.

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112 Wolffe, John, The expansion of evangelicalism: the age of Wilberforce, More, Chalmers and Finney (Leicester, 2006), pp 107–119Google Scholar.

113 See Dobbin’s comments before the Synod of Belfast in Belfast News-Letter, 10 May 1860; Newry Commercial Telegraph, 12 May 1860; Banner of Ulster, 29 May 1860; cf. Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 9–11, 83–153, 184–95; Nelson, Year of delusion, p. 239; cf. Armagh Guardian, 19 Aug. 1859; Massie, Scenes of revival, p. 75.

114 Banner of Ulster, 21 May 1859; Abernethy, cf. J. M., ‘Religious awakening in Ahoghill’ in Presbyterian Magazine, i (1859), p. 98Google Scholar; Moore, Revival in Ballymena, pp 20–1; ‘Report on the state of religion’ in Missionary Herald (1859), p. 6; Porter, F. J., The Spirit resisted (2nd edn, Londonderry, 1860), pp 6–9Google Scholar.

115 Belfast Daily Mercury, 8 July 1859.

116 Ibid., 1 Oct. 1859; Northern Whig, 1 Oct. 1859; Belfast Morning News, 4 Oct. 1859; Londonderry Standard, 6 Oct. 1859; Downpatrick Recorder, 8, 15 Oct. 1859.

117 Anon., , The Ballygowan revival demonstration (Belfast, 1861), p. 9Google Scholar.

118 Hill, ‘Ulster awakened’, pp 449–50; Ballymena Observer, 26 Mar. 1859; Dickson, J. N. I., Beyond religious discourse: sermons, preaching and evangelical Protestants in nineteenth-century Irish society (Milton Keynes, 2007), p. 191Google Scholar.

119 Nelson, Year of delusion, pp 192–3.

120 Ibid., pp 121–2; cf. Westminster Larger Catechism, Q. 158; Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 184–5; Northern Whig, 13 June 1859; Holmes, ‘Experience and understanding’, p. 362.

121 McCosh, Ulster revival, p. 8; Belfast Daily Mercury, 1 Oct. 1859; Northern Whig, 1 Oct. 1859; Downpatrick Recorder, 8 Oct. 1859; cf. Newry Commercial Telegraph, 13 Oct. 1864; Adams, Revival at Ahoghill, pp 24–5.

122 ‘Resolutions on the state of religion’ in Missionary Herald (1860), p. 632; cf. ‘Report on the state of religion’ in Missionary Herald (1862), p. 167.

123 Northern Whig, 17 Nov. 1862.

124 Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 137–8, 144–50. For examples of converts’ preaching in Hamilton’s locality, see Tyrone Constitution, 17 June, 1, 8 July, 19 Aug., 2, 16, 30 Sep. 1859.

125 Nelson, Year of delusion, pp 117–18; Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 187–8.

126 Seaver, Ulster revival, p. 9.

127 Moore, Robert, The Rev. William Dobbin, minister at Anaghlone (Belfast, 1901), pp 32–33Google Scholar.

128 Holmes, Irish Presbyterian heritage, p. 123.

129 Hamilton, Scriptural character, p. 187; Nelson, Speech at General Assembly, p. 4; Northern Whig, 10 June 1859.

130 Holmes, Janice, Religious revivals in Britain and Ireland 1859–1905 (Dublin, 2000), pp 3Google Scholar, 7.

131 Holmes, Janice, ‘Transformation, aberration or consolidation? Explaining the Ulster revival of 1859’ in Niall Ó Ciosáin (ed.), Explaining change in cultural history (Dublin, 2005), pp 128–131Google Scholar.

132 Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 143–4, 172.

133 Gibson, Year of grace, p. 134; Holmes, ‘World turned upside down’, pp 147–8.

134 Toye, Thomas, ‘Great George’s Street Church, Belfast’ in Reid, Authentic records, p. 114Google Scholar.

135 See T. Y. Killen to H. G. Guinness, 9 Aug. 1859 in Guinness, Revival in Ireland, pp 28–9; Holmes, Religious revivals, pp 10–11.

136 Nelson, Year of delusion, pp 60–2, 126.

137 Northern Whig, 26 Oct. 1859.

138 Nelson, Year of delusion, pp 166–7, 173–4; Anon., Ballygowan revival demonstration, pp 14–15.

139 Anon., , Religious epidemics. A history of the years of grace or, the years of delusion (Belfast, 1860), p. 14Google Scholar.

140 Similar complaints were made at the Synod of Belfast in 1863 by the Revd H. H. Carson of Sinclair Seamen’s congregation, Belfast (Northern Whig, 14 May 1863).

141 Holmes, Shaping, p. 285.

142 Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 132–5.

143 Gibson, Year of grace, pp 217, 288, 402; Minutes of Carrickfergus Presbytery, May 1860 (Strong Room, Church House, Belfast); Minutes of the Down Presbytery, 7 Feb. 1860 (Strong Room, Church House, Belfast).

144 Belfast Daily Mercury, 19 July 1859.

145 Toye, ‘Great George’s Street’, p. 115.

146 Hamilton, Scriptural character, p. 286; ‘Report on the State of Religion’ in Missionary Herald (1863), p. 162.

147 Hamilton, Scriptural character, p. 287.

148 Nelson, Year of delusion, p. 174; Gibson, Year of grace, p. 193.

149 Hamilton, Scriptural character, p. 287.

150 Carwardine, Transatlantic revivalism, p. 20; Northern Whig, 12 Apr. 1858, 13 June 1859; Jeffrey, When the Lord walked the land, pp 58–66.

151 Ballymena Observer, 28 May 1859; cf. Banner of Ulster, 31 May 1859; Northern Whig, 28 May 1859.

152 Railton, N. M., Revival on the Causeway coast (Fearn, 2009), pp 77–78Google Scholar; cf. Arthur, Revival in Ballymena and Coleraine, p. 7; Moore, Revival in Ballymena, p. 8; Massie, J. W., Revivals in Ireland (London, 1859)Google Scholar in Barnes (ed.), History of the 1859 Ulster revival, ii, 21, 39.

153 Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 9, 144–5; see S. J. Moore’s comments on lay-persons setting aside ordinary callings in order to further the revival: Caledonian Mercury, 12 July 1859.

154 Hamilton, Scriptural character, p. 145.

155 Belfast Daily Mercury, 1 Oct. 1859; Belfast News-Letter, 1 Oct. 1859.

156 Hamilton, Scriptural character, p. 171.

157 Hempton and Hill, Evangelical Protestantism, p. 120.

158 Witness, 4 Sep. 1874.

159 Dickson, Beyond religious discourse, p. 189.

160 Seaver, Ulster revival, p. 8.

161 Hamilton, Scriptural character, p. 288.

162 Armagh Guardian, 8 July 1859; Massie, Scenes of revival, p. 33; cf. Holmes, ‘Ulster revival’, p. 493; Richey, William, Connor and Coleraine (Belfast, 1870), viGoogle Scholar; Bailie, John, The revival, or, what I saw in Ireland (London, 1860), p. 31Google Scholar.

163 Gibson, Year of grace, p. 395; Donat, J. G., ‘Medicine and religion: on the physical and medical disorders that accompanied the Ulster Revival of 1859’ in W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter, and Michael Shepherd (eds), The anatomy of madness: essays in the history of psychiatry, (3 vols, London, 1988), iii, 143Google Scholar; cf. Northern Whig, 29 July 1859.

164 Irish Times, 7 July 1859.

165 ‘Signs of the times’ in Presbyterian Magazine, i (1859), pp 191–2; Moore, Revival in Ballymena, pp 10–11; Belfast Morning News, 5 Aug. 1859; Belfast Daily Mercury, 11 Aug. 1859; Downpatrick Recorder, 6 Aug. 1859; Portadown Weekly News, 27 Aug. 1859.

166 Nelson, Year of delusion, pp 125–6, 174–5.

167 Henry, J. M., ‘An assessment of the social, religious and political aspects of Congregationalism in the nineteenth century’ (Ph.D. thesis, Queen’s University Belfast, 1965), pp 257–258Google Scholar.

168 Nelson, Year of delusion, pp 174–5, 181–2.

169 Simpson, R. T., Recollections and reflections on the revival of 1859 (Dungannon, 1909), pp 7–8Google Scholar.

170 Carson, J. T., God’s river in spate: the story of the religious awakening of Ulster in 1859 (Belfast, 1958), p. 107Google Scholar.

171 Orr, J. E., The second evangelical awakening in Britain (London, 1949), pp 181–182Google Scholar.

172 Freeman’s Journal, 4 Feb. 1861; Minutes of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, iii (1861), p. 19; Northern Whig, 19 Oct. 1863; Ritchie, ‘Evangelicalism’, pp 172–3.

173 See Belfast Daily Mercury, 28 Sep. 1859; Northern Whig, 27 Sep., 15 Oct., 12 Nov. 1859.

174 Nelson, Person and work, p. 16; idem, Year of delusion, pp 30–1, 106. See the attacks on Nelson in Crawford, David, The baptism of the Holy Spirit, and a vindication of the revival of 1859 (Londonderry, 1861), pp 21–22Google Scholar; Banner of Ulster, 6 Dec. 1859, 11, 15 Sep. 1860; Londonderry Standard, 15 Dec. 1859; Ballymena Observer, 4 June 1864.

175 Nelson, Year of delusion, p. 290; Northern Whig, 19 July 1862; Knox, Robert, ‘The revival in Ireland’ in Testimony to the Lord’s reviving work in Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and Syria (London, 1865), p. 13Google Scholar; Hanna, Revivals vindicated, pp 3, 6; Anon., Revivalism and Mormonism, p. 8; Gibson, Year of grace, pp 120–1.

176 McCann, Strikings down, pp 9, 52, 61–2.

177 Hamilton, Scriptural character, p. 288; cf. Porter, F. J., The prophet deceived (Londonderry, 1860), pp 3–18Google Scholar.

178 Dobbin, Nature and grounds, p. 8.

179 Ibid., p. 7; Moore, William Dobbin, p. 33.

180 Minutes of the Synod of Armagh and Monaghan, May 1860 (Strong Room, Church House, Belfast).

181 Nelson, Person and work, pp 23–4; cf. Anon., Revivalism and Mormonism, pp 7–8; Anon., Ballygowan revival demonstration, p. 7.

182 Nelson, Year of delusion, p. 29.

183 Hamilton, Scriptural character, p. 267.

184 Ibid., pp 268–9; cf. Gibson, Year of grace, p. 75.

185 Gibson, Year of grace, p. 194; Northern Whig, 15 Oct. 1859.

186 Hamilton, Scriptural character, p. 280.

187 Ibid., pp 278–9; Nelson, Year of delusion, p. 175.

188 Hamilton, Scriptural character, pp 278–9.

189 Ibid., p. 281.

190 Holmes, Religious revivals, p. 6; Hill, ‘Ulster awakened’, pp 456–8; Holmes, ‘Experience and understanding’, pp 373–4.

191 Hempton and Hill, Evangelical Protestantism, p. 159; Hill, ‘Ulster awakened’, pp 460–1; Holmes, Religious revivals, p. 6; Railton, Causeway coast, p. 178.

192 Orr, Second evangelical awakening, p. 179.

193 Railton, Causeway coast, pp 175–9.

194 Holmes, ‘Revivalism and fundamentalism’, p. 256; Connolly, Sean, Religion and society in nineteenth-century Ireland ([Dundalk], 1985), p. 46Google Scholar.

195 Bratt, J. D., ‘Religious anti-revivalism in Antebellum America’ in Journal of the Early Republic, xxiv (2004), p. 72Google Scholar.

196 See Ritchie, ‘William McIlwaine’, pp 803–26; idem, ‘Reformed Presbyterian criticism of the 1859 Ulster revival’s impact on worship and church order’ in Confessional Presbyterian, vii (2011), pp 47–64.

197 Nelson, Year of delusion, p. 263.

198 Holmes, ‘Covenanter politics’, p. 365.

199 The Non-Subscribing Presbyterian Church was a minority Presbyterian denomination whose break with the main body concerned the question of subscription to the Creeds.

200 Latimer, History of the Irish Presbyterians, pp 493–4.

201 Davey, Story of a hundred years, p. 45.

202 Schmidt, L. E., Holy fairs: Scotland and the making of American revivalism (2nd edn, Grand Rapids, 2001)Google Scholar; Westerkamp, M. J., Triumph of the laity: Scots-Irish piety and the Great Awakening, 1625–1760 (New York, 1988), pp 23–29Google Scholar; Jeffrey, When the Lord walked the land, pp 4–9, 254; Bebbington, Victorian religious revivals, pp 4–6.

203 Holmes, ‘Revivalism and fundamentalism’, p. 261; Jackson, Alvin, Ireland 1798–1998: politics and war (Oxford, 1999), p. 67Google Scholar.

204 Bebbington, D. W., Evangelicalism in modern Britain: a history from the 1730s to the 1980s (London, 1989), p. 171Google Scholar; cf. idem, Victorian religious revivals, pp 223–4; Holmes, ‘Ulster revival’, pp 513–14; idem, ‘Experience and understanding’, p. 377. The Keswick movement derives it name from the town in the English Lake District where annual conventions were held from 1875 onwards. David Bebbington argues that the Keswick or higher life movement’s notion of sanctification by faith made the idea of an ‘entire sanctification palatable to those in the Calvinist tradition’, though without equating entire sanctification with total sinless perfection: Bebbington, Dominance of evangelicalism, pp 194–7

205 Holmes, A. R., ‘Biblical authority and the impact of higher criticism in Irish Presbyterianism, ca. 1850–1930’ in Church History, lxxv (2006), pp 366, 370–371Google Scholar.