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Lapis Lazuli: The Early Phases of its Trade

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 August 2014

Georgina Herrmann
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Extract

The long standing importance of lapis lazuli in Mesopotamia is shown by the early date of its original importation during the Late Ubaid period. This was probably the first moment that man had sufficient wealth and leisure to begin the quest for luxuries. Hitherto his trade had been confined to the import of essential materials, such as flint and obsidian for blades. But during Gawra XIII he initiated a wide-ranging luxury trade, and for the first time we find beads of turquoise, amethyst, agate, jadeite, beryl and lapis lazuli. Most of these stones occur on the Iranian plateau, but there are only rumours of a source of lapis lazuli in Iran, which cannot be substantiated. The most likely source for this early Gawran lapis is, in fact, the mines at Badakhshan, some fifteen hundred miles to the east, across desert and mountain; and one of the principal reasons for investigating lapis lazuli was the tradition that it originated only from the Badakhshan mines. Although this exclusive claim cannot be regarded as proven, Badakhshan remains the only probable source, and it follows that as early as c. 3500 B.C. trade was established between ancient Iraq and distant Afghanistan—convincing proof of the widespread scope of early trade and communications.

Type
Research Article
Information
IRAQ , Volume 30 , Issue 1 , Spring 1968 , pp. 21 - 57
Copyright
Copyright © The British Institute for the Study of Iraq 1968

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References

1 This article is based on some of the findings in my D.Phil, thesis, “The Source, Distribution, History and Use of Lapis Lazuli in Western Asia from the earliest times to the end of the Seleucid era”, presented at Oxford in 1966Google Scholar, and my thanks are due to many people and organizations, acknowledged in its Preface, for having made it possible. My greatest debt of gratitude is to my supervisor, Professor M. E. L. Mallowan, C.B.E., Fellow of All Souls College, who has given me unfailing assistance and encouragement. I am most grateful to Mrs. Joan Crowfoot Payne of the Department of Antiquities of the Ashmolean Museum for contributing the section on lapis lazuli in Egypt, which follows this article, and to Mr. Roger Moorey, Assistant Keeper in the same Department, for reading the typescript and making many helpful and constructive suggestions. Mrs. P. Clark prepared the drawings: the maps are based on originals prepared by Miss Charmian Lacey, A.R.I.B.A., a member of the Oxford University Expedition to Afghanistan in 1964. This expedition was only made possible by the courteous support of members of the Afghan Government, particularly by the Ministry of Mines and Industries.

2 Apart from Egypt, which is outside the scope of this paper. For the early importation of lapis lazuli into Egypt see the following article by Mrs. Joan Crowfoot Payne. See also Lucas, A., Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, revised by Harris, J. R. (1962) pp. 340–344.Google Scholar

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39 Ibid. pl. CLXXV, 66.

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41 Ibid. pl. CLXXV, 65.

42 Ibid. pl. CV, 29, and pl. LIV, c 2.

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67 U.E. II no. 5, U.12711, from PG 1412.

68 O.I.P. LXXII nos. 791 and 847.

69 Amiet no. 740.

70 U.E. II no. 206, 11895, and no. 84, U.11757, unstratified: no. 131, U.11868, PG 1162; U.E. X, no. 80, U.19075, PJ grave 38 of the Royal Cemetery period.

71 Ashmolean p. 12, no. 31, from Jemdat Nasr burial PJN 6. Compare also no. 32.

72 Amiet no. 396 from Philadelphia—Legrain, L., The Culture of the Babylonians from the seals in the Collection of the Museum, P.B.S. XIV (hereafter P.B.S. XIV) (1925) no. 53.Google Scholar See also no. 55, a row of crouching ibex.

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75 G. le Strange, The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, gives a good synthesis of their evidence. According to their itineraries, the journey of a merchant caravan from Badakhshan to Baghdad would have lasted over three months.

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83 Grave 426 at the deepest level, 6 m., contains three lapis beads—Moorey, P. R. S., “A Reconsideration of the Excavations on Tell Ingharra (East Kish), 1923–33”, Iraq 28 (1966) p. 46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar It is possible that Grave 426 belongs to the end of the Jemdat Nasr period. Grave 517 at 4·5 m. (which is probably E.D. II) has a string of lapis cylinder beads, ibid. p. 49. Watelin described lapis lazuli as one of the grave gifts of the Y Cemetery although his four catalogued examples did not contain the stone—Watelin, L. Ch., Excavations at Kish, Oxford Field Museum Expedition IV (hereafter Kish IV) (1934) p. 28.Google Scholar

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87 According to the King List Enmerkar was the second king of the First Dynasty of Uruk, of which Gilgamesh was the fifth—Jacobsen, T., The Sumerian King Eist, A.S. 11 (1939) Table II.Google Scholar Gilgamesh was besieged by Agga, the last king of the First Dynasty of Kish, and Agga's father, En-me-bara-gisi is now known to reign in E.D. II, for his name appears on two vase fragments, one of which was found in the E.D. II–III context of Temple Oval I at Khafajah—Rowton, M. B., C.A.H. I Ch. VI p. 55.Google Scholar It is therefore probable that Enmerkar also reigned in E.D. II at a slightly earlier date.

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89 Ibid. p. 27, line 330 ff. This text is interesting for it proves that “crate-carrying donkeys” were used for long distance transport at this time.

90 Ibid. p. 45, line 620 ff.

91 See note 83.

92 The eyes of the copper bull Kh.V.154, see Frankfort, H., O.I.C. 20 p. 29Google Scholar and Frankfort, H., Sculpture of the Third Millennium B.C. from Tell Asmar and Khafajah, O.I.P. XLIV (1939) p. 42 pl. 104, no. 184Google Scholar: and triangular-shaped inlay in stone vases—O.I.C. 20 p. 46.Google Scholar

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95 Ashmolean no. 133.

96 B.M. Catalogue pl. 13 e, BM 104493; pl. 15 d, BM 122550, from PG 1236 with two E.D. III style seals; and pl. 17 g, BM 21122, assigned by Wiseman to E.D. III, but placed by R. Boehmer, in his review of Wiseman, in E.D. II—OLZ. 61 (1966) col. 38.Google Scholar

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98 Amiet no. 1140.

99 Louvre II pl. 65, 2 and 3, nos. A.44 and A.45.

100 U.E. X pl. 6, no. 88, U.18951.

101 Porada, E. and Buchanan, B., Corpus of Ancient Near Eastern Seals in North American Collections I, The Collection of the Pierpont Morgan Library (hereafter C.A.N.E.S.) (1948) pl. X, no. 62.Google Scholar

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103 Ibid.

104 Nissen, Jorg, Zur Datierung des Königsfriedhofes von Ur (1966) pp. 143–144.Google Scholar

105 Ibid. p. 143.

106 Buchanan, B., “The Date of the So-Called Second Dynasty Graves of the Royal Cemetery at Ur”, J.A.O.S. 74 (1954) pp. 147–153.Google Scholar

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108 Loc. cit.: Buchanan's re-dated graves from Ur: Predynastic Cemetery graves dated to the Akkadian era: PG 143, 395, 535, 543, 544, 549, 559, 563A, 681, 686, 697, 717, 724, 726, 796, 861, 1173, 1276.

Predynastic Cemetery graves dated to the Post-Akk. period: PG 35, 323, 345, 397, 689, 867. Nissen, however, assigns PG 397 and 689 to late Akk. and PG 867 to Early Akk.

“Second Dynasty” Cemetery graves dated to the Akk. period: PG 695, 735, 871.

“Second Dynasty” Cemetery graves dated to Ur III, prior to the reign of Amar-Suen: PG 1422, 1845, 1847, 1849, 1850 (to reign of Shulgi).

Sargonid Cemetery graves to Late Akkadian: PG 506, 540, 647, 673. Nissen assigns 673 to Post-Akk.

Sargonid Cemetery graves to Post-Akkadian: PG 435, 671, 704, 825, 963, 973, 985, 986, 991, 1003, 1012, 1067, 1092, 1094, 1095, 1205. Nissen assigns 435, 704, 985 and 1205 to Late Akk.

109 PG 337, 580, 777, 779, 789, 800, 1050, 1054, 1232, 1236, 1237, 1332, 1618, 1631, 1648.

110 O.I.P. LXIII p. 146, note 134.

111 U.E. II p. 371.

112 Where the allocation of a grave was originally given by Buchanan, in J.A.O.S. 74, see note 108Google Scholar, the tomb number is simply followed by his name. Where the tomb is dated on the evidence of the pottery-chart or the seals, the principal pot or seal so used has been noted. Early Dynastie graves in the Predynastic Cemetery: PG 15, seal 101; PG 31, seal 99; PG 36, Pot 16; PG 37, seal 34; PG 76, Pot 109; PG 88, Pot 101; PG 91, Pot 243; PG 121, Pot 1; PG 153, seal 133; PG 156, seal 26; PG 159, Pot 61; PG 165, seal 47 (E.D. II); PG 169, Pot 63; PG 176, Pot 67; PG 208, Pots 7 and 209; PG 209, seal 202; PG 219, seal 166 (Amiet no. 1066); PG 221, seal 138 and Pot 61; PG 226, seal 203; PG 227, seal 48; PG 237, Pot 243; PG 249, Pots 7 and 109; PG 288, seal 158; PG 313, seal 42 (Amiet no. 1059); PG 333, Pots 61, 101, 209, 243; PG 337, Royal Tomb; PG 356, Pot 243; PG 357, seal 38; PG 362, seal 8, Pot 243; PG 381, seal 139; PG 383, seal 164, Pot 243; PG 420, Pots 67, 203, 208 and 243; PG 473, Pot 67; PG 482, seal 162; PG 580, Royal Tomb; PG 755, Tomb of Mes-kalam-dug; PG 760, Pot 208; PG 777, Royal Tomb; PG 779, Royal Tomb; PG 789, Royal Tomb; PG 800, Royal Tomb (Pu'abi); PG 895, Seal 75 and Pot 243; PG 1027, seal 129; PG 1043, seal 161 and Pot 7; PG 1050, Royal Tomb; PG 1054, Royal Tomb; PG 1068, seal 69; PG 1088, Pot 143; PG 1111, Pot 186; PG 1130, Seals 28 and 35; PG 1133, Pot 209; PG 1136, seal 106; PG 1151, Pots 101 and 143; PG 1163, seal 15; PG 1170, Pot 243; PG 1172, seal 78; PG 1178, seal 71; PG 1195, Royal Cemetery jewellery; PG 1197, seal 130; PG 1216, seal 135 and Pot 243; PG 1232, Death Pit; PG 1234, Pot 223; PG 1236, Royal Tomb; PG 1237, The Great Death Pit; PG 1270, Pot 143; PG 1299, Pot 143; PG 1312, seal 33 and Pot 243; PG 1315, seal 30; PG 1322, seal 149; PG 1332, Death Pit; PG 1382, Seals 3 and 67; PG 1385, seal 143; PG 1387, seal 146; PG 1391, Pot 243; PG 1403, seal 68; PG 1404, seal 280; PG 1407, seals 46 and 66; PG 1412, seal 5; PG 1421, Royal Cemetery jewellery; PG 1556, Pots 83, 208 and 243; PG 1563, Pot 61; PG 1588, Pot 243; PG 1603, Pots 92 and 243; PG 1625, seal 37; PG 1636, Pot 243; PG 1648, Royal Tomb; PG 1650, seal 124 and Pot 16; PG 1749, seal 102; PG 1750, seal 20.

113 Akkadian graves in the Pre-dynastic Cemetery: PG 184, Pot 187; PG 202, Buchanan, (JAOS 74, p. 152, note 33)Google Scholar; PG 319, Pot 145, which occurs in PGs 184 and 202; PG 369, Pot 187; PG 395, Buchanan; PG 535, Buchanan; PG 543, Buchanan; PG 544, Buchanan; PG 549, Buchanan; PG 559, Buchanan; PG 563A, Buchanan; PG 655, Pot 132; PG 681, Buchanan; PG 686, Buchanan; PG 697, Buchanan; PG 717, Buchanan; PG 724, Buchanan; PG 726, Buchanan; PG 780, Boehmer dates seal 159 to the Akkadian period, see Boehmer, R., Die Entwicklung der Glyptik während der Akkad-zeit (hereafter Boehmer) (1965) p. 143, no. 17 aCrossRefGoogle Scholar; PG 792, seal no. 165, dated by Boehmer to Akk., Boehmer p. 143, no. 22; PG 796, Buchanan; PG 822, Pot 132; PG 861, Buchanan; PG 1173, Buchanan; PG 1276, Buchanan; PG 1398, Pot 197; PG 1400, seals 74 and 279A (Boehmer nos. 25 and 88); PG 1405, seal 218 (Boehmer no. 87). Nissen assigns PG 792 and 1400 to ED and PG 1398 to Ur III.

114 Post-Akkadian graves in the Pre-dynastic Cemetery: PG 35, Buchanan; PG 125, Pot 110; PG 143, Buchanan (p. 151, note 28); PG 323, Buchanan; PG 345, Buchanan; PG 397, Buchanan; PG 689, Buchanan; PG 840, Pot 41; PG 867, Buchanan; PG 1651, Pot 110. Nissen assigns PG 397, 689 and 840 to Late Akk., 867 to Early Akk. and 1651 to ED III.

115 PG 1420, Buchanan, seal no. 53.

116 U.E. II pl. 136.

117 Ibid. pl. 133.

118 Ibid. This pendant was not found with the necklace shown with it.

119 A fine picture of this piece is in Margueron, J., Mesopotamia, Archaeologia Mundi (1965) pl. 42.Google Scholar

120 U.E. II pl. 138.

121 Ibid. pls. 91–93.

122 Ibid. e.g. pls. 108–116.

123 Ibid. pl. 153, U.12442.

124 Ibid. pls. 95–98.

125 Ibid. pl. 103, U.14483A and U.10988.

126 Ibid. pl 156, U.9255.

127 Ibid. pl. 107, U.10556 and pl. 110, U.10412.

128 Koldewey, R., Die Tempel von Babylon und Borsippa …, W.V.D.O.G. 15 (1911) pl. 9, 79Google Scholar: Schmidt, E. F., Persepolis I (1953) pp. 186, 209 and 263Google Scholar: idem, Persepolis II (1957) p. 71.

129 Pritchard, J. B., A.N.E.T. (1955) p. 46, line 74Google Scholar; Kramer, S. N., Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta p. 39, line 528.Google Scholar

130 U.E. II pl. 87, U.12357a.

131 Ibid. pl 151, U.9361.

132 Ibid. pl. 174. With a hardness of 6 on Mohs' scale lapis lazuli would have been hard enough to sharpen weapons of copper or bronze.

133 Ibid.

134 Ibid. pl. 142.

135 Frankfort, H., O.I.C. 17 p. 71, fig. 61Google Scholar; and M.A.M. I pp. 158–160.Google Scholar

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137 N.H. XXXVII xxxix 120.Google Scholar

138 U.E. II nos. 14, 15, 141, 209 and U.E. X no. 133.

139 U.E. II nos. 16–20, 22, 23, 26–30, 98–101, 138.

140 U.E. II nos. 16–20. No. 16 is inscribed with the queen's name: no. 19 with the name of A-bar-gi.

141 U.E. II nos. 35, 37, 139, 140, 286: U.E. X 125.

142 U.E. II nos. 33, 36, 39, 105–107; U.E. X 119, 120, 129.

143 Moortgat, A., Vorderasiatische Rollsiegel, Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Steinschneidekunst (hereafte V.A.R.S.) (1940) no. 141.Google Scholar

144 Newell no. 39; B.M. Catalogue pl. 24 a (U.E. II no. 36), pl. 24 b, pl. 24 d and pl. 26 d: and Eisen, G. A., Ancient Oriental Cylinder and Other Seals with a description of the Collection of Mrs. William H. Moore, O.I.P. XEVII (hereafter Moore) (1940) no. 26.Google Scholar

145 C.A.N.E.S. nos. no, 121, 123; B.M. Catalogue pl. 23 h (U.E. II, no. 209); V.A.R.S. nos. 102, 134–136, and 141; O.I.P. LXXII no. 769.

146 U.E. II no. 65, Amiet no. 1039.

147 U.E. III pls. 30 and 57, no. 517—from S.I.S. I. See also Amiet no. 1063.

148 U.E. II no. 216 and Amiet no. 1064.

149 Boehmer no. 202.

150 Ibid. no. 302.

151 Ibid. no. 45.

152 U.E. X no. 139, Boehmer no. 252 (fig. 11 e): and U.E. II, no. 217, Boehmer, no. 33.

153 U.E. II no. 65 (Amiet 1039) seal of A-kalamshar, no. 67 (Amiet 1043), no. 118 (Amiet 1046), no. 146 (Amiet 1113), now B.M. Catalogue pl. 18 b; C.A.N.E.S. no. 85 (Amiet pl. 77 bis D); V.A.R.S. no. 112; Brett no. 26 (Amiet pl. 77 bis I); Moore no. 18; B.M. Catalogue pl. 18 a & c; P.B.S. XIV, no. 112; Louvre II A. 50 (Amiet 1020); and U.E. X no, 156.

154 U.E. II no. 66 (Amiet 1044), 68 (Amiet 1041) now B.M. Catalogue pl. 17 i, 69, 70 (Amiet 1128), 158, 161, 216, 220, 280, 302; C.A.N.E.S. nos. 65, 78, 80 (Amiet 1073), 81, 82; O.I.P. LXXII, no. 372 (Amiet 1115); V.A.R.S. nos. 113, 114, 115 (Boehmer p. 142 XIX), 116, 119; Brett no. 21 (Amiet 1127), 22, 25; Newell no. 83; B.M. Catalogue pl. 16 b and 20 h; Ashmolean no. 207; P.B.S. XIV no. 93; and Louvre II A. 37.

155 U.E. II no. 53, 166 (Amiet 1066); C.A.N.E.S. nos. 88, 89, 92; O.I.P. LXXII,nos. 355, 375; V.A.R.S. nos. 118 and 126; Delaporte, L., Catalogue des Cylindres Orientaux … de la Bibliothèque Nationale (hereafter Bib. Nat.) (1910), no. 47.Google Scholar

156 U.E. II nos. 7 (Amiet 1047), 12, 133, 135 and 298: O.I.P. LXXII no. 331; Newell no. 113; B.M. Catalogue pl. 22 d and 23 c and U.E. X nos. 80 and 81 (Amiet 1052).

157 See pp. 33–34.

158 prom the collections analysed which principally consist of the seals published in C.A.N.E.S., O.I.P. LXXII (Diyala), the Moore, Brett and Newell collections, U.E. II and U.E. X, the British Museum, Ashmolean, Louvre, Bibliothèque Nationale, Berlin and Philadelphia catalogues.

159 M.A.M. I p. 28, pl. LXXI.

160 Ibid. pp. 28, 158–160, pl. LVIII.

161 Ibid. p. 37.

162 Ibid. pp. 163–168.

163 Ibid. pp. 70–92.

164 Parrot, A., Syria 42 (1965) pp. 216–224.Google Scholar

165 Ibid. pl. XV 4, p. 220.

166 Ibid. pp. 218–219.

167 Ibid. p. 218, pl. XV 3.

168 Moorey, , Iraq 28 (1966) pp. 30 and 44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

169 Mackay, E., Report on the Excavation of the ‘A’ Cemetery at Kish, Mesopotamia, Part I (1925) p. 53Google Scholar; and A Sumerian Palace and the ‘A’ Cemetery at Kish, Mesopotamia, Part II (1929) pp. 133 and 182–3.Google Scholar

170 Frankfort, H., O.I.C. 19 p. 36Google Scholar and Delougaz, P., The Temple Oval at Khafajah, O.I.P. LIII (1940) pp. 86–87, figs. 78 and 79.Google Scholar

171 Frankfort, H., O.I.C. 13 p. 101Google Scholar and O.I.P. LIII p. 91.

172 O.I.C. 13 pp. 107–111Google Scholar Graves K.55 and K.95.

173 Gadd, C. J., C.A.H. I, Ch. XIX p. 38.Google Scholar

174 U.E. II p. 372.

175 Kramer, S. N., From the Tablets of Sumer (1956) Appendix A, p. 268.Google Scholar

176 Gadd, op. cit. p. 21.

177 For the 29 Akkadian graves in the Predynastic Cemetery see note 113. Three graves in the Second Dynasty cemetery are allocated to the period by Buchanan: PG 695, 735 and 871. There are another 21 in the Sargonid cemetery; PG 67, Seal no. 322 (Boehmer 112); PG 384, seal 363 (Boehmer 1138); PG 445, seal 319 (Boehmer 614); PG 484, Seal 373 (Boehmer 576); PG 489, seal 359 (Boehmer 962); PG 496, seal 320 (Boehmer 629); PG 503, seal 308 (Boehmer 194); PG 506, Buchanan; PG 540, Buchanan; PG 576, seal 273 (Boehmer 1053) and Pot 132; PG 635, seals 238 (Boehmer 574)and 372(Boehmer 5 7 5); PG 647, Buchanan; PG 673, Buchanan (assigned by Nissen to Ur III); PG 699, seal 364 (Boehmer 1139); PG 703, seal 313 (Boehmer 302); PG 848, Pot 201; PG 859, seal 207 (Boehmer 772) (assigned by Nissen to Ur III); PG 968, seal 315 (Boehmer 673); PG 1002, seal 233 (Boehmer 316); PG 1154, seal 316 (Boehmer 621); PG 1199, Pot 197; PG 1213, Seal 358 (Boehmer 848).

178 U.E. II pp. 151–160 for descriptions of PG 543, 697 and 780 in the Predynastic cemetery, now assigned to the Akkadian period.

179 For instance in the Second Dynasty graves PGs 1422, 1845, 1847, 1849 and 1850, attributed by Buchanan to the first part of the Third Dynasty of Ur.

180 Moorey, , Iraq 28 (1966) p. 30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

182 Kish IV p. 50.

182 Ibid. pl. XXXIV 3: Moore no. 37; Boehmer no. 860.

183 Kish IV pl. XXXV.

184 Frankfort, H., O.I.C. 16 pp. 47–48, fig. 31.Google Scholar

185 Frankfort, H., O.I.C. 17 pp. 35–37, figs. 28–29.Google Scholar I am most grateful to Professor Seton Lloyd for drawing my attention to this reference.

186 Ibid. fig. 28, before restoration, and fig. 29, row 2, after restoration.

187 Gawra I pp. 134–135.

188 Starr, R. F. S., Nuzi I p. 380.Google Scholar

189 Mallowan, M. E. L., Iraq 9 (1947) pp. 66, 114, Pl. XV, no. 9.Google Scholar

190 Ibid. p. 113, pl. XV, no. 4.

191 Ibid. pp. 177–178, pl. XXXV.

192 Mackay, E., A Sumerian Palace and the ‘A’ Cemetery at Kish, Part II (1929) p. 185.Google Scholar

193 Mackay, E., Report on the Excavations of the ‘A’ Cemetery at Kish, Mesopotamia, Part I (1925) pp. 53–56.Google Scholar

194 Ibid. pl. VII, 2: and Part II pl. LX.

195 Speiser, E. A., “Preliminary Excavations at Tepe Gawra”, A.A.S.O.R. IX (1927–1928) p. 36, pl. 79, bottom row.Google Scholar

196 Mallowan, M. E. L., Iraq 9 (1947) pp. 177–178, pl. XXXV.Google Scholar

197 Twenty-five Akkadian seals with developed E.D. III contest frieze designs: C.A.N.E.S. no. 145 (Boehmer 187); Newell 87 (Boehmer 18), 101 (Boehmer 304); Moore 20 (Boehmer 202), 47 (Boehmer 37); U.E. II 73 (Boehmer 6), 74 (Boehmer 25), 157 (Boehmer 24), 159 (Boehmer 17 a) also in B.M. Catalogue as ED III Pl. 16 g; 160 (Boehmer 72), 163 (Boehmer 86), 165 (Boehmer 22), 167 (Boehmer 35) also in Amiet as ED III; 175 (Boehmer 45), 217 (Boehmer 33), 218 (Boehmer 87), 226 (Boehmer 201), 279A (Boehmer 88), 308 (Boehmer 194); U.E. X 130 (Boehmer 46), 139 (Boehmer 252); B.M. Catalogue as ED III Pl. 22 c (Boehmer, review of B.M. Catalogue in OLZ. 61 col. 38); Ashmolean 274 (Boehmer 1653); Louvre II A.63 (Boehmer 8); P.B.S. XIV 82 (Boehmer 20).

198 Twenty-five Akkadian ‘fighting pairs’ seals: C.A.N.E.S. 165 (Boehmer 633); O.I.P. LXXII 685 (Boehmer 867), 686 (Boehmer 777); Moore 30 (Boehmer 744); U.E. II 168 (Boehmer 11), 169 (Boehmer 222), 181 (Boehmer 573), 182 (Boehmer 611), 227 (Boehmer 109), 239 (Boehmer 307), 246 (Boehmer 793), 290 (Boehmer 654), 310 (Boehmer 449), 311 (Boehmer 183), 313 (Boehmer 302), 319 (Boehmer 614), 328 (Boehmer 797), 372 (Boehmer 575), 373 (Boehmer 576;, 376 (Boehmer 578); U.E. X 182 (Boehmer 787); Louvre II A.71 (Boehmer 765), A.130 (Boehmer 844); V.A.R.S. 157 (Boehmer 173), 173 (Boehmer 790).

199 Three seals depicting gods battling: C.A.N.E.S. 176 (Boehmer 857), 177 (Boehmer 823); Moore 37 (Boehmer 860).

200 Eleven presentation scenes: C.A.N.E.S. 130 (Boehmer 818), 190 (Boehmer 1100), 199 (Boehmer 1198) 247 (Boehmer 1488); O.I.P. LXXII 644 (Boehmer 1467), 674 (Boehmer 961); U.E. II 197 (Boehmer 1446), 273 (Boehmer 1053); Louvre I D.24 (Boehmer 1175); Louvre II A.168 (Boehmer 1473); V.A.R.S. 217 (Boehmer 1542).

201 Nougayrol, J., “Documents du Habur, Le Sceau de Daguna”, Syria 37 (1960) pp. 209–214, fig. 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

202 “If a seal is made of lapis lazuli, he will be altogether lucky (literally ‘he will have a god altogether’), that god will make him happy.” K.A.R. 185 rev. I 11, translated by Professor C. J. Gadd in a letter to Professor M. E. L. Mallowan of 17.xi.64: for another translation see Goff, B. L., Symbols of Prehistoric Mesopotamia (1963) p. 199Google Scholar “… a seal of lapis lazuli (portends) that he shall have power; his god shall rejoice over him.”

203 U.E. II, no. 207 (Boehmer 772), 275 (Boehmer 920), 359 (Boehmer 962); U.E. X 228 (Boehmer 1350), 235 (Boehmer 1065), 301 (Boehmer 1463); Unpublished British Museum seals BM 12285, 22427, 89165 (Boehmer 735), 89366, 103329, 129461 (Boehmer 699): and V.A.R.S. 243 (Boehmer 801).

204 I am grateful to Mr. Moorey foe proposing this plausible alternative solution.