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Reflections of the Indian Independence Movement in the Iranian Press

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2022

Azar Ahanchi
Azar Ahanchi*
Affiliation:
Department of History, University of Tehran
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Abstract

After the Second World War and simultaneously with the independence movement in India many other movements for national independence and removal of colonial rule erupted in other Asian and African countries where news from India was of great importance and interest. This paper will focus on the coverage of India's independence movement by Iranian newspapers which were the main source of such news for the Iranians. The paper will examine a variety of Iranian newspapers across the political spectrum for the accuracy of their reports and the quality of their analysis of the developments in India. In spite of their technical shortcomings and their limited knowledge of India, the articles carried by the Iranian newspapers demonstrate the Iranian public's interest in India's movement for freedom from colonial rule, which they regarded as a source of hope and a model to be followed by other Asian countries suffering from foreign domination.

Type
Articles
Information
Iranian Studies , Volume 42 , Issue 3 , June 2009 , pp. 423 - 443
Copyright
Copyright © The International Society for Iranian Studies 2009

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References

1 Jones, Kenneth W., The New Cambridge History of India, Socio Religious Reform Movements in British India (NewDelhi, 2003): 30–33Google Scholar; Rapson, E.J., ed., The Cambridge History of India (Delhi-Jullundur-Lucknow, 1958), 6: 538Google Scholar.

2 Jones: 34–39; Rapson: 104, 140.

3 About the establishment of the university, see Rapson: 109,111–115; Lovett, Verney, K.C.S.I., A History of the Indian Nationalist Movement (London, 1920, reprinted New Delhi, 2001): 7–9Google Scholar.

4 Lovett: 61–63; Rapson: 540; Majumdar, R.C., ed., “Struggle for Freedom,” The History and Culture of the India People, British Pararmountcy and Indian Renaissance (Bombay, 1969), 11: 33–34Google Scholar, 45–46, 64–67, 74–76; about the Congress see Lovett: 31–38. In 1885 and during the rule of Lord Dufferin, the British viceroy 1884–88), the Indian congress was founded and consisted of 71 representatives.

5 About Tilak's activities, see, Nehru, Pandit Jawaharlal, My Life, trans. Tafazzuli, Mahmud, into Persian (Tehran, 1956/1335): 74, 9Google Scholar; Lovett: 48–52.

6 See Majumdar: 294–295

7 Majumdar: 296–98, 300, 310, 520–527; Nehru: 111–113, 120, 161–162.

8 Majumdar: 790–792. It is worth mentioning that Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964), the first Indian prime minister, declared India an independent republic and separated his country from the United Kingdom on 26 January 1949.

9 After 1332/1953 only aKayhan and Ettla‘at dailies were being published. The editors of the other newspapers and magazines were gradually arrested and the papers shut down.

10 Niruy-e Sevvom (Third Force) the daily organ of Zahmat keshan-e Mellat-e Iran Party, which was published only in 1952, first issue, 14 October 1952/22 Mehr 1331, wrote two article about administration of India and its foreign policy on the occasion of the fourth year of Indian independence. These articles differ from other articles from the point of view of context and method of research, and that was why I have examined them here.

11 Ettla‘at Daily, first issue 9 July 1926/19 Tir 1305, 11 April 1946/22Farvardin 1325, p.1–6, entitled, “dar rāh-e ijād Hendustan mostaqel” (Towards establishment of an India Independent), the article is composed in three parts with three subtitles.

12 With regard to lack of cooperation refer to Nehru: 92–3 and 120–122.

13 The violent incidents after the division of Bengal Province and the imprisonment of Tilak and Gandhi and massacres of the inhabitants of Jallianwalla Bagh on 13 April 1919 are examples of violent repressive measures by the British authorities in India. Gandhi and Nehru have mentioned these atrocities in their autobiographies, see for example, Nehru: 114–115; Majumdar: 305–307, 312–313.

14 Daad, evening newspaper, Tehran, first issue October 1942/Aban 1321, 20 October 1947/28 Mehr 1326, pp. 1–2, entitled “Āzādi Hendustan siāsat-e esta'mār talabi dowel-e gharbi ra dar Āsiā khāteme midehad” (Freedom of India will put an end to the colonial aspirations of Western countries in Asia).

15 “teror-e Gandi” (the assassination of Gandhi), Namey Mardom, 31 January 1948/11 Bahman 1326, pp. 1–2. Namey Mardom, was the official organ of the Party Tudeh. It was published first as a daily, first issue 2 February 1941/13 Bahman 1320. From 1944/1323 onward it was published irregularly and weekly, from 1946/1325 it was a monthly magazine.

16 Ettla‘at, (no: 6027, 11, April 1946) entitled Towards Establishment of an India Independent, with two subtitles: [0]“Barnāme-y hezb-e kongere” (The Program of the Congress Party) and “Barnāme-y Moslim Lig” (The Program of Muslim League Party).

17 Kayhan, “Genah ra'is-e hokumat-e Pakistan” (Jinnah the President of Pakistan) 17 August 1947/25 Mordad 1326, pp. 1–2. Kayhan morning daily, Tehran, first issue 24 May 1942/3 Khordad 1321, semi-official newspaper.

18 Lord Wavell has been misspelled “Vebol.”

19 Ettla‘at, 11 April 1946/22 Farvardin 1325, p. 4.

20 Sir Stafford Cripps arrived in Delhi on 23 March 1942. The Congress Party rejected his proposal on 2 April in the same year. Refer to Majumdar: 637–638.

21 About this subject refer to Nehru: 267–268; XI Majumdar: 460–461.

22 Hardy: 308–10.

23 This three-member delegation was called the Cabinet Commission; Sir Stafford Cripps headed the commission and Lord P. Laurence and A.V. Alexander were the other two members. Refer to XI Majumdar: 727–728.

24 Ettla‘at, “Hendustan be kojā mirawad?” (Where is India going), with the subtitle “daste-hā bar zedde mellat” (Factions against the Nation), 2 September 1946/11Shahrivar 1325, pp. 1–2.

25 Hardy: 325.

26 Daad, “Kābine-y a'telāfi Hendustān bā sherkat-e kolliyy-e ahzāb” (Indian Coalition Cabinet Involving All Factions), 20 June 1946/30 Khordad 1325, pp. 1, 4. The article does not mention the translator's and author's name.

27 Ettla‘at, 11 April 1946/22 Farwardin 1325, pp. 1,6.

28 Name-y mardom, “mosta'mere-y Āzād- dar atrāf-e kongere-y Simla” (Independent Colony—about Simla meeting), 26 June 1945/8 Tir 1324, pp. 1, 7.

29 Daad, “Gāndi pishwā-y mazhabi- sijāsi Hindu-ha ra beshnāsid” (Learn About Gandhi, the Religious-Political Leader of Hindus), with the subtitle, “mardi ke dar Hindustan basāt-e farmānrawā'i hiyrat āwari dārad” (The Man Who Has Astonishing [omitted] Rule in India), 4 December 1947/13Azar 1326, pp. 1–2. The Author (Jalāl Taheri) says he has quoted his material from foreign journals without mentioning their names.

30 Ettela‘at, “peyam-e Gāndi barāye mardom-e Iran” (Gandhi's message for Iran), 30 January 1948/11 Bahman 1326, p. 1, from F. Jazayeri, the first secretary of the Iranian Embassy in India.

31 Nur-e Danish, “marg-e Māhātmā Gāndi Mahārbha” (Death of The Mahatma Gandhi Maharbha), 16 February 1948/29 Bahman 1326, pp. 608–610. This was a religious weekly magazine in Tehran, founded in 1947/1326.

32 Name-y Mardom, “terror-e Gāndi” (Gandhi's Assassination), 30 January 1948/11 Bahman 1326, pp. 1, 4.

33 Iran-e ma (Our Iran) daily, 22 May 1948/2 Khordaad 1327, pp. 1, 3, translated from the Egyptian magazine “Al-Ketab.”

34 Ettla‘at, 11 April 1946/22 Farvardin 1325/, pp. 1, 6.

35 Khalili Shirāzi, Ebrahim, “Sik-ha ra beshnasid” (Learn about Sikhs), Kyhan, 4 November 1947/12 Aban 1326, pp. 1– 2Google Scholar.

36 Fazel Hindi, ‘Abdulwahed, “Gāndi awwal bāyad payrouān-e khod ra eslāh namāyad sepas be mosalmānān Hind hamle konad” (Gandhi Ought to Improve First His Followers, Then He Attack on Muslims of India), A'in-e Islam, 3 January 1947/13 Dey 1325, pp. 1, 9Google Scholar. It was a religious weekly magazine in Tehran, first issue March 1949/Farvardin 1323.

37 Iran-e ma, “negāhi be mobārezāt-e Nehru” (A Glance at Nehru's Freedom Struggles), 22 May 1948/2 Khordad 1327, pp. 1, 3. Part two of the article was published on 24 May 1948/4 Khordad 1327, p.1, 3.

38 Daad, “āzādi-ye Hindustān” (Liberty of India), 20 October 1947/28 Mehr 1326, pp. 1–2.

39 Niruy-e sevvom, “Bouān Nehru wa TitoĀyā mowaffwq be motshakel nemudan Niruy-e Sevvom dar jahān khāhand shod? “ (Bevin, Nehru and Tito—Will They Succeed to Mobilize a New Power or The Third Bloc In The World?), 26 February 1953/7 Esfand 1331, pp. 1, 4, translated from Observateur, a socialist magazine.

40 Niruy-e sevvom, “Nehru wa do niruy-e emprialism jahāni” (Nehru against Two Imperial Powers in the World), 9 April 1953/20 Farvardin 1332, pp. 1, 4, translated by Tusi, without mentioning his source.

41 Daad, “khabar-e gheyr mowassaq kenāre giriy-e Jenāh” (Jinnah's Resignation Is Unfounded), 28 February 1948/9 Esfand 1326, pp. 1–2.

42 Kayhan, 17 August 1947/25 Mordad 1326, pp. 1–2.

43 Daad, “Hind wa Pakistān ba ham doshmani nadārand” (India and Pakistan are Not Enemies),14 January 1947/24 Dey 1326.

44 Ettetla'at, “Tārikh ta'sis Hind wa Pākistan” (The history of establishment of India and Pakistan), 14 January 1946/22 Farvardin 1325, pp. 1, 6.

45 About Muslim caliphate congress, see Gandhi, M.K., My Life, trans. Barzin, Mas'ud, into Persian (Tehran, 1354/1975): 495–498,Google Scholar and Nehru: 91–95. For a further account about this proposal see Hardy: 248–251 and 256, 263.

46 Name-y Mardom, 30 January 1947/11 Bahman 1326, pp. 1, 4.

47 Hardy: 247, 251–252.

48 Ettla‘at, 6 June 1947/16 Khordad 1326, p. 4.

49 Dad, 21 October 1947/29 Mehr 1326, p. 2.

50 Iran-e-Ma, “sāl-e gozashte dar Hind wa Pākistān che ruy dād” (What happened in India and Pakistan last year?),15 August 1948/24 Mordad 1327, pp. 1, 2, 4.

51 Parcham-e Islam, “Mosalmānān-e Hind, Mosalmānān-e Palestinian, ejtemā’āt-e dini- ‘alām-e khatar”, 7 May 1947/17 Ordibehesht 1326, p. 1; Parcham-e Islam, “Du rokn eslāmi jehād wa hajj”, 5 June 1947/15 Khordad 1326, p. 1, 2. Parcham-e Islam is a religious weekly magazine founded in Tehran in February 1945/Bahman 1324 and the first issue was published on 21 March 1946/1 Farvardin 1325.

52 Kayhan, 8 October 1947/15 Mehr 1326, p.1, 4; Kayhan, “yk parde gham angiz az fajay'e Sikhā”, 9 November 1947/18 Aban 1326, pp. 1, 4.

53 Donya-ye Islam, “Sikhā rā beshnasid”, 5 December 1947/14Azar 1326, p. 1, 4 . Donya-ye Islam is a weekly religious magazine and the first issue was published in Tehran on 20 November 1946/20 Mehr 1325.

54 Parcham-e Eslam, 5 June 1947/15 Khordad 1326, pp. 1–2.

55 Kayhan, 12 January 1948/22 Day 1326, p.1, 4. In reaction to the materials published by the Iranian press, the Indian embassy in Tehran issued a statement and expressed dissatisfaction and concern about the evil propaganda launched by people who profited from the situation or irresponsible figures about India. According to the editorial in Kayhan, the statement was published on 11 January 1947/21 Day 1326, without mentioning the newspaper that had published the statement.

56 Parcham-e Eslam, “The Muslims’ Pakistan and Sikhs' India”, 19 October 1947/9 Mehr 1326, pp. 1–2. The Prophet Mohammad's grandson, and the third Shi'ite Imam, or guide, Hossein and a large group of his supporters were killed in a battle with troops of the Umayyad Caliph, Yezid, in Karbala in October 680 in Karbala, which is now in Iraq.

57 Parcham-e Islam, 5 June 1947/15 Khordad 1326; Parcham-e Islam, 15 October 1947/23Mehr 1326, p.1; Faqihi Shirazi, Parcham-e Islam, “bigānegān wa mamālek-e Islami” (Foreigners and Islamic States), 19 November 1947/28 Aban 1326, p. 1–2. The author didn't give the date of these events.

58 K ayhan, “Pakistān-e khunin” (Bloody Pakistan), 9 November 1947/18 Aban 1326, pp. 1, 4. Ghawām as-Saltane was Prime Minister and Foreign Minister of Iran at the same time (1946/1947), see Hedāyat, Mokhber as-Saltane, Khāterāt wa Khatarāt (Tehran 1375), 454–461; ‘Azimi, ad-din, Fakhr, Iran, Crisis of Democracy, trans. ‘Mahdawi, A. H. and Nuzari, B., into Persian (Tehran, 1995/1374): 227–228Google Scholar.

59 Kayhan, 30 April 1947/10 Ordibehesht 1326, pp. 1, 4. Contrary to the writer's remarks, other Islamic countries also participated in this conference, see Gholam-Hossein Sadiqi, A Report about a Journey to India (Tehran University Press, undated), the author was commenting about the report of the head of the Iranian delegation to India from Tehran University.

60 Nameh-e Mardom, “dar posht-e pardh-ye Hind wa Pākistān chehrh-ye siyāsat engelestān didh mi shawad” (One Can see the Old British Colonial Aspiration Behind the Hostility Between India and Pakistan), 14 January 1948/24 Day 1326, pp. 1–2.

61 Hardy: 204–208, 210–211.

62 Nameh-e Mardom, 30 January 1948/11 Bahman 1326, pp. 1, 4. This subject has been examined in detail in the section dealing with leaders.

63 Nameh-e Mardom, 14 January 1948/24 Day 1326.

64 For example, refer to the struggle of the Bengalese governors in 1756–57, 1764, and from 1764 until 1799 in Mysore. The last general uprising against the British rulers in 1857 was conducted by Muslim leaders. The Mongol Empire collapsed upon their defeat and many governors and princes were killed, see Majumdar, vol. IX: 91–92, 632–638; Habib, Irfan, ed., Confronting Colonialism Resistance and Modernization under Haidar Ali Tipo Sultan (New Delhi, 2002): 79–87Google Scholar.

65 Nehru, 2: 762–763; Majumdar: 895–896. The Muslims replied to such a brutal and hostile attitude by killing the viceroy, Lord Mayo, in 1872.

66 Naame-eMardom, “taqsim-e Hindustān” (Division of India), 5 February 1948/15 Bahman 1326, pp. 1– 2, translated into Persian without mentioning the source.

67 Naame-eMardom, “māhiyat-e ertejā’i-e siyāsat nefāq bin-e Hind wa Pākistān” (The reactionary nature of hostility between India and Pakistan), 21 February 1948/2 Esfand 1326, pp. 1– 2.

68 Naame-eMardom, 14 January 1948/25 Day 1326, pp. 1–2.

69 Ettela‘at, “yaki az hawādes sijāsi in gharn, Hind mostaqel mi shawad” (One of the Most Important Political Events in the Present Century: India is Achieving Independence), 14 January 1948/24 Mordad 1326, pp. 1–6.

70 Daad, 20 October 1947/28 Mehr 1326, p.2.

71 Lord Mountbatten the last Viceroy of India (March 1947 to August 1947). His proposal declared three plans of British Government: (a) solution of India constitutional deadlock, (b) Partition of India, (c) India Independence. Act was passed by the British Parliament in July 1947, see E.J. Rapson, vol. VI, pp. 658–660.

72 Keyhan, 26 May, 1947/5 Khordad1326, pp. 1, 6. In the same issue on pages 1 and 2 Keyhan has another article about Lord Mountbatten's proposal entitled “yak kishwar-e bozorg islāmi dar shorof-e tashkil ast”(A Big Islamic Country is Being Born).

73 Kayhan, “āyā Hind liyāqat esteqlāl dārad ?” (Is not India deserved to be free?), 2 October 1947/9 Mehr 1326, pp. 1–2. In this article the author blames Churchill who had said that the British government had hurriedly granted independence to India.

74 For example one can refer to Daad's article, quoted in footnote 29, which gives an unpleasant image of Gandhi's personality.