Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T17:00:52.877Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Iran’s Socio-economic Drought: Challenges of a Water-Bankrupt Nation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2022

Kaveh Madani ,
Amir AghaKouchak  and
Ali Mirchi
Kaveh Madani
Affiliation:
Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College London, UK and Department of Physical Geography, Stockholm University, Sweden
Amir AghaKouchak
Affiliation:
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, USA
Ali Mirchi
Affiliation:
Department of Civil Engineering and Center for Environmental Resource Management, University of Texas at El Paso, USA
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Iran is currently experiencing serious water problems. Frequent droughts coupled with over-abstraction of surface and groundwater through a large network of hydraulic infrastructure and deep wells have escalated the nation’s water situation to a critical level. This is evidenced by drying lakes, rivers and wetlands, declining groundwater levels, land subsidence, water quality degradation, soil erosion, desertification and more frequent dust storms. This paper overviews the major drivers of Iran’s water problems. It is argued that while climatic changes and economic sanctions are commonly blamed as the main drivers of water problems, Iran is mainly suffering from a socio-economic drought—i.e. “water bankruptcy,” where water demand exceeds the natural water supply. In theory, this problem can be resolved by re-establishing the balance between water supply and demand through developing additional sources of water supply and implementing aggressive water demand reduction plans. Nevertheless, the current structure of the water governance system in Iran and the absence of a comprehensive understanding of the root causes of the problem leave minimal hope of developing sustainable solutions to Iran’s unprecedented water problems.

Type
Articles
Information
Iranian Studies , Volume 49 , Issue 6: Special Issue: Environment in Iran: Changes and Challenges , November 2016 , pp. 997 - 1016
Copyright
Copyright © The International Society For Iranian Studies 2016

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

AghaKouchak, Amir, Cheng, Linyin, Mazdiyasni, Omid, and Farahmand, Alireza. “Global Warming and Changes in Risk of Concurrent Climate Extremes: Insights from the 2014 California Drought.” Geophysical Research Letters 41, no. 24 (2014): 8847–8852. doi:10.1002/2014GL062308.Google Scholar
AghaKouchak, Amir, Feldman, David, Hoerling, Martin, Huxman, Travis, and Lund, Jay. “Water and Climate: Recognize Anthropogenic Drought.” Nature 524 (2015): 409–411. doi:10.1038/524409a.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
AghaKouchak, Amir, Norouzi, Hamid, Madani, Kaveh, Mirchi, Ali, Azarderakhsh, Marzi, Nazemi, Ali, Nasrollahi, Nasrin, Farahmand, Alireza, Mehran, Ali, and Hasanzadeh, Elmira. “Aral Sea Syndrome Desiccates Lake Urmia: Call for Action.” Journal of Great Lake Research 41 (2015): 307–311. doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2014.12.007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allan, John A. “Virtual Water: A Strategic Resource, Global Solutions to Regional Deficits.” Groundwater 36, no. 4 (1998): 545–546. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6584.1998.tb02825.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Amber, and Matlock, Marty D. “A Review of Water Scarcity Indices and Methodologies.” White paper 2011, available at https://www.sustainabilityconsortium.org/wp-content/themes/sustainability/assets/pdf/whitepapers/2011_Brown_Matlock_Water-Availability-Assessment-Indices-and-Methodologies-Lit-Review.pdf.Google Scholar
Bruce, Christopher, and Madani, Kaveh. “Successful Collaborative Negotiation over Water Policy: Substance versus Process.” Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 141, no. 9 (2015): 04015009. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000517.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dai, Aiguo. “Increasing Drought under Global Warming in Observations and Models.” Nature Climate Change 3, no. 1 (2013): 52–58. doi:10.1038/nclimate1633.Google Scholar
Damberg, Lisa, and AghaKouchak, Amir. “Global Trends and Patterns of Drought from Space.” Theoretical and Applied Climatology 117, no. 3–4 (2014): 441–448. doi:10.1007/s00704-013-1019-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darvishi, A., Arkhi, S., and Ebrahimi, A. “Risk and Disaster Management to Mitigate the Effects of Droughts in Iran.” In proceeding of Conference on Drought in Charmahal-Bakhtiari, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord, Iran (November 2008). [In Persian].Google Scholar
Davtalab, Rahman, Madani, Kaveh, Massah, Alireza, and Farajzadeh, Manoucher. “Evaluating the Effects of Climate Change on Water Reliability in Iran’s Karkheh River Basin.” In Proceedings of the World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2014, 2127–2135. Portland, OR: ASCE.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farhidi, Faraz, and Madani, Kaveh. “A Game Theoretic Analysis of the Conflict Over Iran’s Nuclear Program.” Paper presented at 2015 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC), 9-12 October 2015, Hong Kong. IEEE, doi:10.1109/SMC.2015.118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foltz, Richard “Iran’s Water Crisis: Cultural, Political, and Ethical Dimensions.” Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 15 (2002): 357–380. doi: 10.1023/A:1021268621490CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghaffari, A. A Review of Drought Impacts on Rainfed Field Crops and Horticulture Crops (Vegetables and Orchards) and of their Socioeconomic Consequences on the Farming Communities; and Analysis of the Policies aimed at Rehabilitation of the Sector. National Consultancy under TCP/IRA/3003, FAO-IRAN Joint Project (2006).Google Scholar
Gohari, Alireza, Bozorgi, Ali, Madani, Kaveh, Elledge, Jeffrey, and Berndtsson, Ronny. “Adaptation of Surface Water Supply to Climate Change in Central Iran.” Journal of Water and Climate Change 5, no. 3 (2014): 391–407. doi:10.2166/wcc.2014.189.Google Scholar
Gohari, Alireza, Eslamian, Saeid, Abedi-Koupaei, Jahangir, Bavani, Alireza Massah, Wang, Dingbao, and Madani, Kaveh. “Climate Change Impacts on Crop Production in Iran’s Zayandeh-Rud River Basin.” Science of the Total Environment 442 (2013): 405–419. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.10.029.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gohari, Alireza, Eslamian, Saeid, Mirchi, Ali, Abedi-Koupaei, Jahangir, Bavani, Alireza Massah, and Madani, Kaveh. “Water Transfer as a Solution to Water Shortage: A Fix that can Backfire.” Journal of Hydrology 491 (2013): 23–39. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.03.021.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gohari, Alireza, Madani, Kaveh, Mirchi, Ali, and Bavani, Alireza Massah. “System-Dynamics Approach to Evaluate Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for Iran’s Zayandeh-Rud Water System.” World Environmental and Water Resources Congress (2014): 1598–1607. doi:10.1061/9780784413548.158.Google Scholar
Golian, S., Mazdiyasni, O., and AghaKouchak, Amir. “Trends in Meteorological and Agricultural Droughts in Iran.” Theoretical and Applied Climatology 119, no. 3–4 (2015): 679–688. doi:10.1007/s00704-014-1139-6.Google Scholar
Gholikandi, Gagik Badalians, Sadrzadeh, Mandana, Jamshidi, Shervin, and Ebrahimi, Morteza. “Water Resource Management in Ancient Iran with Emphasis on Technological Approaches: A Cultural Heritage.” Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 13, no. 3 (2013): 582–589. doi:10.2166/ws.2013.084.Google Scholar
Hao, Zengchao, and AghaKouchak, Amir. “A Nonparametric Multivariate Multi-index Drought Monitoring Framework.” Journal of Hydrometeorology 15, no. 1 (2014): 89–101. doi:10.1175/JHM-D-12-0160.1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hardin, E., AghaKouchak, A., Qomi, M. J. A., Madani, K., Tarroja, B., Zhou, Y., Yang, T., and Samuelsen, S. “California Drought Increases CO 2 Footprint of Energy.” Sustainable Cities and Society (2016). doi:10.1016/j.scs.2016.09.004.Google Scholar
Hardin, Garrett. “The Tragedy of the Commons”. Science 162, no. 3859 (1968): 1243–1248. doi:10.1126/science.162.3859.1243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hjorth, Peder, and Madani, Kaveh. “Sustainability Monitoring and Assessment: New Challenges Require New Thinking.” Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 140, no. 2 (2014): 133–135. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000411.Google Scholar
Hjorth, Peder, and Madani, Kaveh. “Systems Analysis to Promote Frames and Mental Models for Sustainable Water Management.” Sciforum Electronic Conference Series 3 (2013). doi:10.3390/wsf3-f003.Google Scholar
IPCC SREX. “Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation: Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.” Ed. Field, C. B. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
IPCC. “Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis.” Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Ed. Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K. B., Tignor, M., and Miller, H. L. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Jamali, Saeed, Abrishamchi, Ahmad, and Madani, Kaveh. “Climate Change and Hydropower Planning in the Middle East: implications for Iran’s Karkheh Hydropower Systems.” Journal of Energy Engineering 139 (2013): 153–160. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)EY.1943-7897.0000115Google Scholar
Katouzian, M. A. “Oil versus Agriculture: A Case of Dual Resource Depletion in Iran.” Journal of Peasant Studies 5, no. 3 (1978): 347–369. doi:10.1080/03066157808438052.Google Scholar
Lewis, Tom, and Madani, Kaveh. Editorial. “End of Sanctions May Help Iran Face an Accelerating Environmental Crisis.” The Guardian, January 20, 2016. Accessed October 26, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2016/jan/20/iran-end-of-sanctions-prompt-environmental-crisis.Google Scholar
Madani, Kaveh. “A System Dynamics Approach to Integrated Watershed Management.” Hydrological Science and Technology 23, no. 1 (2007): 147–158.Google Scholar
Madani, Kaveh. “Iran’s Looming Water Crisis.” The Middle East in London 11, no. 2 (March 2015): 9–10.Google Scholar
Madani, Kaveh. “Reasons behind Failure of Qanats in the 20th Century.” Paper presented at the World Environmental and Water Resources Congress, 12–16 May 2008, Honolulu, Hawaii, 2008. doi:10.1061/40976(316)77.Google Scholar
Madani, Kaveh. Towards Sustainable Watershed Management: Using System Dynamics for Integrated Water Resources Planning. Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller, 2010.Google Scholar
Madani, Kaveh. Editorial. “Water Crisis in Iran: A Desperate Call for Action.” Tehran Times, May 7, 2016. http://www.tehrantimes.com/news/301198/Water-crisis-in-Iran-A-desperate-call-for-actionGoogle Scholar
Madani, Kaveh. “Water Management in Iran: What is Causing the Looming Crisis?” Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences 4, no. 4 (2014): 315–328. doi:10.1007/s13412-014-0182-z.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madani, Kaveh, and Dinar, Ariel. “Cooperative Institutions for Sustainable Common Pool Resource Management: Application to Groundwater.” Water Resources Research 48, no. 9 (2012). doi:10.1029/2011WR010849.Google Scholar
Madani, Kaveh, and Dinar, Ariel. “Exogenous Regulatory Institutions for Sustainable Common Pool Resource Management: Application to Groundwater.” Water Resources and Economics 2 (2013): 57–76. doi:10.1016/j.wre.2013.08.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madani, Kaveh, and Dinar, Ariel. “Non-Cooperative Institutions for Sustainable Common Pool Resource Management: Application to Groundwater.” Ecological Economics 74 (2012): 34–45. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.12.006.Google Scholar
Madani, Kaveh, and Hakim, Shirin. “Iran: Reversing the Environmental Damages of Sanctions.” Tehran Times (Tehran), July 18, 2016. Accessed October 26, 2016. http://www.tehrantimes.com/news/404354/Iran-Reversing-the-environmental-damages-of-sanctionsGoogle Scholar
Madani, Kaveh, and Mariño, Miguel A. “System Dynamics Analysis for Managing Iran’s Zayandeh-Rud River Basin.” Water Resources Management 23, no. 11 (2009): 2163–2187. doi:10.1007/s11269-008-9376-z.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madani, Kaveh, Rowan, Dana, and Lund, Jay. “The Next Step in Central Valley Flood Management: Connecting Costs and Benefits.” Paper presented at the 2007 UCOWR/NIWR Annual Conference: Hazards in Water Resources, 24–26 July 2007 Boise, ID.Google Scholar
Madani, Kaveh, Zarezadeh, Mahboubeh, and Morid, Saeed. “A New Framework for Resolving Conflicts over Transboundary Rivers using Bankruptcy Methods.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 18, no. 8 (2014): 3055–3068. doi:10.5194/hess-18-3055-2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madani Larijani, Kaveh. “Iran’s Water Crisis: Inducers, Challenges and Counter-measures”. In Proceedings of the ERSA 45th Congress of the European Regional Science Association, Vrije University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 23–27 August 2005.Google Scholar
Madani Larijani, Kaveh. “Watershed Management and sUstainability—A System Dynamics Approach (Case Study: Zayandeh-Rud River Basin, Iran).” Master’s thesis, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund, Sweden, 2005.Google Scholar
Mehran, Ali, Mazdiyasni, Omid, and AghaKouchak, Amir. “A Hybrid Framework for Assessing Socioeconomic Drought: Linking Climate Variability, Local Resilience, and Demand.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 120, no. 15 (2015): 7520–7533. doi:10.1002/2015JD023147.Google Scholar
Mirchi, Ali, and Madani, Kaveh. Editorial. “A Grand but Faulty Vision for Iran’s Water Problems.” The Guardian, May 9, 2016. Accessed October 27, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/09/iran-desalination-waterGoogle Scholar
Mirchi, Ali, and Madani, Kaveh. “How Iran’s Elections Are Going Green.” The Guardian. February 23, 2016. Accessed October 27, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/23/iran-election-environment-green-tehranbureauGoogle Scholar
Mirchi, Ali, and Madani, Kaveh. Editorial. “Iran’s Leaders React to the Nation’s Massive Environmental Challenge.” The Guardian, March 18, 2015. Accessed October 27, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2015/mar/18/irans-leaders-react-to-the-nations-massive-environmental-challengeGoogle Scholar
Mirchi, Ali, Madani, Kaveh, Watkins, Sajjad Jr., and Ahmad, David. “Synthesis of System Dynamics Tools for Holistic Conceptualization of Water Resources Problems.” Water Resources Management 26, no. 9 (2012): 2421–2442. doi:10.1007/s11269-012-0024-2.Google Scholar
Mirchi, Ali, Watkins, Kaveh Jr., and Madani, David. “Modeling for Watershed Planning, Management, and Decision Making.” Watersheds: Management, Restoration, and Environmental Impact. New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2010.Google Scholar
Moazedi, Amin, Taravat, Mohsen, Jahromi, Hossein Nazarboland, Madani, Kaveh, Rashedi, Ashkan, and Rahimian, Saman. “Energy-Water Meter: A Novel Solution for Groundwater Monitoring and Management.” In Proceedings of the World Environmental and Water Resources Congress, (2011), available at http://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/41173(414)99.Google Scholar
Panahi, Ali, Alijani, Bohloul, and Mohammadi, Hosein. “The Effect of the Land Use/Cover Changes on the Floods of the Madarsu Basin of Northeastern Iran.” Journal of Water Resource and Protection 2, no. 4 (2010): 373–379. doi: 10.4236/jwarp.2010.24043CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rahimpour, M. J. “Optimization of Leakage from an Urban Water Distribution Network through a Physical Model.” Master’s thesis, Shahid Bahonar Kerman University, Kerman, Iran, 2010.Google Scholar
Sharifi, Forood, Zahra Samadi, S., and Wilson, Catherine A. M. E. “Causes and Consequences of Recent Floods in the Golestan Catchments and Caspian Sea Regions of Iran.” Natural Hazards 61, no. 2 (2012): 533–550. doi:10.1007/s11069-011-9934-1.Google Scholar
Soroush, Nazanin, and Madani, Kaveh. “Every Breath You Take: The Environmental Consequences of Iran Sanctions.” The Guardian, November 21, 2014. Accessed October 26, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2014/nov/21/iran-environmental-consequences-of-sanctionsGoogle Scholar
Tabari, Hossein, and Talaee, Parisa Hosseinzadeh. “Temporal Variability of Precipitation over Iran:1966–2005.” Journal of Hydrology 396, no. 3 (2011): 313–320. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.11.034.Google Scholar
Tabari, Hossein, AghaKouchak, Amir, and Willems, Patrick. “A Perturbation Approach for Assessing Trends in Precipitation Extremes across Iran.” Journal of Hydrology 519 (2014): 1420–1427. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.09.019.Google Scholar
Zoljoodi, Mojtaba, and Didevarasl, Ali. “Evaluation of Spatial–Temporal Variability of Drought Events in Iran Using Palmer Drought Severity Index and Its Principal Factors (through 1951–2005).” Atmospheric and Climate Sciences 3, no. 2 (2013): 193–207. doi:10.4236/acs.2013.32021.Google Scholar