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Excavating Zarathustra: Ernst Herzfeld's Archaeological History of Iran

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2022

Jennifer Jenkins
Jennifer Jenkins*
Affiliation:
Department of History, University of Toronto
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Abstract

This article analyzes the work of the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld (1879–1948) and its influence on the writing of Iranian national history in the 1920s and 1930s. Herzfeld's life and work illuminates the relationship between Germany and Iran and between orientalist scholarship and nationalist history in the first half of the twentieth century. Through the method of what he called “archaeological history,” Herzfeld wrote an interdisciplinary history of Iran and its Aryan foundations that contested the assumptions of decades of European orientalist scholarship.

Type
Research Article
Information
Iranian Studies , Volume 45 , Issue 1 , January 2012 , pp. 1 - 27
Copyright
Copyright © The International Society for Iranian Studies 2012

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Footnotes

Many thanks are due to the Canada Research Chairs Foundation and to the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for the financial support that made this research possible.

References

1 Herzfeld's best known works include Zoroaster and His World (Princeton, 1947); Iran in the Ancient East (London, 1941); Archaeological History of Iran (London, 1935); Am Tor von Asien: Felsdenkmale aus Irans Heldenzeit (Berlin, 1920); Iranische Felsreliefs: Aufnahmen und Untersuchungen von Denkmälern aus Alt- und Mittelpersischer Zeit (with Friedrich Sarre) (Berlin, 1910) and copious articles and reviews. For an initial bibliography see Miles, George, “The Writings of Ernst Herzfeld,” Ars Islamica, 7 (1940): 82–92Google Scholar and the supplement by Ettinghaus, Richard, Ars Islamica, XV–XVI (1951): 266–67.Google Scholar For an updated bibliography see Gunter, Ann C. and Hauser, Stefan R., eds., Ernst Herzfeld and the Development of Near Eastern Studies 1900–1950 (Leiden, 2005), 617–23.Google Scholar

2 Suzanne L. Marchand's impressive German Orientalism in the Age of Empire: Religion, Race and Scholarship (Cambridge, 2009) is the most recent synthesis.

3 Rüdiger vom Bruch, “Ernst Herzfeld in an Academic Context: The Historical Sciences of Culture at the University of Berlin during the Weimar Republic,” in Gunter and Hauser, eds., Ernst Herzfeld, 500.

4 Eric Hobsbawm famously stated that modern nations like to imagine themselves as ancient. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality (Cambridge, 1990); Hobsbawm, Eric and Ranger, Terence, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983).Google Scholar

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6 Marchard, Suzanne L., Down from Olympus. Archaeology and Philhellenism in Germany, 1750–1970 (Princeton, NJ, 1996), 188–262.Google Scholar

7 Goode, Negotiating for the Past, 4.

8 Breasted, James Henry, “The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago: A Beginning and a Program,” The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, 38, no. 4 (July 1922): 275–76 (emphasis original).CrossRefGoogle Scholar Thanks to Mohamad Tavakoli-Targhi for bringing this article to my attention.

9 Gabriel, Alfons, Die Erforschung Persiens (Vienna, 1952).Google Scholar

10 Marchand, Suzanne L., Down from Olympus. Archaeology and Philhellenism in Germany, 1750–1970 (Princeton, 1996), 195–97, 213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar The Orient Society was headed by the archaeologist Walter Andrae, one of Herzfeld's teachers, and it funded the Assur excavation. Marchand, Suzanne, “German Archaeology and Cultural Imperialism in Asia Minor,” in Volksgeist as Method and Ethic: Essays on Boasian Ethnography and the German Anthropological Tradition, ed. Stocking, George W. Jr. (Madison, 1996), 320–21.Google Scholar

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13 The accuracy of Herzfeld's 1905 maps was attested to by Stein, Aurel, “An Archaeological Journey in Western Iran,” Geographical Journal, 92, no. 4 (October 1938): 313–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14 On British and French accounts see Gabriel, Erforschung Persiens, 235. One of the most popular German texts on Persepolis, Stolze, F. and Andreas, F. C., Persepolis: die Achaemenidischen und Sasanidischen Denkmäler und Inschriften Persepolis, Istakhr, Pasargadae, Shapur (Berlin, 1882), included photographs.Google Scholar

15 Ernst Herzfeld Papers, Series 2: Journals, Notebook N-81, 98.

16 Ernst Herzfeld Papers, Series 2: Journals, Notebook N-82, 24.

17 Ernst Herzfeld Papers, Series 2: Journals, Notebook N-82, 24–25.

18 Kossinna, Gustav, “Die indogermanische Frage archaeologisch beantwortet,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 34 (1902): 161–222,Google Scholar reprinted in Scherer, Anton, ed., Die Urheimat der Indogermanen (Darmstadt, 1968), 25–109.Google Scholar

19 Herzfeld's approach was closer to that of his contemporary and colleague C. H. Becker, the founder of the journal Der Islam and the first German cultural minister (Reichskunstwart). Becker believed in moving beyond philology in the study of ancient cultures and to use material artifacts to document “cultural unities” (Kultureinheiten). On Becker see Hanisch, Ludmilla, Nachfolger der Exegeten (Wiesbaden, 2003), 33.Google Scholar

20 Hauser, Stefan, “Ernst Herzfeld: Life and Work,” Encyclopedia Iranica, ed. Yarshater, Ehsan (New York, 2004), XII: 290.Google Scholar

21 Hauser, “Ernst Herzfeld: Life and Work,” 290.

22 Jens Kröger, “Ernst Herzfeld and Friedrich Sarre,” in Gunter and Hauser, eds., Ernst Herzfeld, 53, 61–62.

23 Herzfeld, Ernst, “Pasargadae: Untersuchungen zur persischen Archaeologie,” Klio: Beiträge zur alten Geschichte, 8 (1908, reprint 1966): 1–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

24 Hauser, “Ernst Herzfeld: Life and Work,” 290.

25 Sarre, Friedrich, “Preface” to Herzfeld, Ernst, Erster vorläufiger Bericht über die Ausgrabungen von Samarra (Berlin, 1912).Google Scholar

26 For Herzfeld's activities before 1914 see Hauser, “Ernst Herzfeld: Life and Work,” 290–91; Upton, Joseph M., “Introduction,” Catalogue of the Herzfeld Archive (Washington, DC, 1974), 5–7;Google Scholar Gabriel, Erforschung Persiens, 240; and Huff, Dietrich, “Germany: Archaeological Explorations and Excavations,” Encyclopedia Iranica, ed. Yarshater, Ehsan (New York, 2001), X: 521–22.Google Scholar

27 He received the Iron Cross for his wartime service. Gunter and Hauser, “Ernst Herzfeld and Near Eastern Studies,” 31.

28 Political Archive of the German Foreign Ministry Berlin (hereafter PA AA Berlin) R 19094, A 4752: Herbert Mueller to Otto von Wesendonck, 31 January 1918.

29 Tavakoli-Targhi, Mohamad, Refashioning Iran: Orientalism, Occidentalism and Historiography (New York, 2001);CrossRefGoogle Scholar Marashi, Afshin, Nationalizing Iran: Culture, Power and the State, 1870–1940 (Seattle and London, 2008);Google Scholar Grigor, Talinn, “Recultivating ‘Good Taste’: the Early Pahlavi Modernists and their Society for National Heritage,” Iranian Studies, 37, no. 1 (March 2004): 17–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

30 As cited in Grigor, “Recultivating ‘Good Taste,’” 16.

31 Grigor, “Recultivating ‘Good Taste,’” 19–20.

32 On this topic, see above all Tavakoli-Targhi, Refashioning Iran, 96ff.

33 Marashi, Nationalizing Iran, 72.

34 Marashi, Nationalizing Iran, 64.

35 Marashi, Nationalizing Iran, 63.

36 Marashi, Nationalizing Iran, 66–73.

37 Tavakoli-Targhi, Refashioning Iran, 101.

38 Marashi, Nationalizing Iran, 59. On this point see also Grigor, “Recultivating ‘Good Taste.’”

39 Marashi, Nationalizing Iran, 54.

40 PA AA Berlin Deutsche Gesandtschaft Teheran (hereafter DGT) Box 26, III. 10, Vol. 1: Foreign Office to DGT, 10 February 1923; DGT to Foreign Office, 1 October 1923; Ernst Herzfeld Papers, Series 2: Journals, Notebook N-83, “Tagebuch Persien I, 1923,” 1–12.

41 Herzfeld wrote the report in 1923. It was published in 1928 as Rapport Sur l'État Actuel des Ruines de Persépolis et Propositions Pour Leur Conservation (Berlin, 1928); Herzfeld, Ernst, “Preface,” Archaeologische Mittheilungen aus Iran, 1, no. 1 (1929): 2.Google Scholar

42 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Vol. 1: DGT to Foreign Office, 1 October 1923.

43 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Vol. 1: DGT to Foreign Office, 1 October 1923: DGT to the Afghan Consul, 27 October 1923; DGT to Herzfeld, 18 February 1925; Mahrad, Ahmad, Die deutsch-persischen Beziehungen von 1918–1933 (Frankfurt/Main, 1974), 418;Google Scholar Hauser, “Ernst Herzfeld: Life and Work,” 290–93.

44 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Vol. 3: Herzfeld to Stieve, 26 March 1935.

45 Mittwoch was a member of the German-Persian Society. PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Vol. 1: Schulenburg to Herzfeld, 13 March 1927.

46 Herzfeld told Schulenburg that establishing a branch of the DAI was essential for conducting sustained research projects in Iran. He asserted that he could combine the directorship with the lectures on archaeological topics that the Iranian government requested of him. PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Vol. 1: Herzfeld to Schulenburg, 3 March 1927; Foreign Office to DGT, 22 September 1927; Schulenburg to Foreign Office, 9 January 1928; DGT to Foreign Office, 5 May 1928.

47 Pirniya consulted with Herzfeld while writing his Ancient Iran, which was used as a textbook in the public schools until 1949. Goode, Negotiating for the Past, 153.

48 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Vol. 1: Foreign Office to DGT, 11 September 1926.

49 Gabriel, Erforschung Persiens, 236–37. De Morgan began his excavation at Susa in 1891 and unearthed prehistoric layers, which he determined to be older those than previously found at Babylon. See Childe, Vere Gordon, New Light on the Most Ancient East: The Oriental Prelude to European Prehistory (New York, 1934), 231.Google Scholar French excavations were also carried out in Hamadan, the site of ancient Eckbatana, in 1913.

50 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Vol. 1: Herzfeld to Schulenburg, 3 March 1927.

51 Childe, Vere Gordon, The Aryans (London and New York, 1926), 36.Google Scholar

52 Sykes, Percy, A History of Persia, 3rd ed. (2 vols., New York, 1930), 1: 104.Google Scholar

53 On Aryanism prior to National Socialism see Trautmann, Thomas, Aryans and British India (Berkeley, CA, 1997);Google Scholar Bryant, Edwin, The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate (Oxford, 2001);CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Ballantyne, Tony, Orientalism and Race: Aryanism in the British Empire (New York, 2006).Google Scholar

54 The idea of a German homeland in Aryan Iran and/or Central Asia can be traced back to Count Gobineau's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1855) and to the label “Indo-Germanic” applied by the philologist Julius Klaproth to the Indo-European language family in 1823. Poliakov, Leon, The Aryan Myth (New York, 1974);Google Scholar Schwab, Raymond, The Oriental Renaissance, trans. Patterson-Black, Gene and Reinking, Victor (1950; repr. New York, 1984), 428–37.Google Scholar

55 Renan, Ernest, “What is a Nation?,” trans. Grant, Iain Hamilton, in Nationalism in Europe, 1815 to the Present, ed. Woolf, Stuart (London and New York, 1996), 48–60 (57).Google Scholar

56 The articles provided a draft for two of his major works: Zoroaster and His World, published in two volumes in 1947–48, and the posthumously published Persian Empire. The late nineteenth-century German philological scholarship on the Avesta by Christian Bartholomae (the Altiranisches Wörterbuch of 1904) provided a scholarly foundation for Herzfeld's work. Daryaee, Touraj, “The Study of Ancient Iran in the Twentieth Century,” Iranian Studies, 42, no. 4 (September 2009): 580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

57 Herzfeld, Ernst, “Zarathustra: Teil I: der geschichtliche Vistaspa,” Archaeologische Mitteilungen aus Iran, 1, no. 2 (October 1929): 76.Google Scholar For technical reasons the diacritical marks have been removed from Herzfeld's original texts.

58 Herzfeld, “Zarathustra: Teil I,” 76.

59 Herzfeld followed the work of the American Iranologist, A. V. Williams Jackson, who also saw Zoroaster as a historical figure. Jackson, A. V. Williams, Zoroaster: The Prophet of Ancient Iran (New York, 1965 [1899]).Google Scholar

60 Sykes, History of Persia, I: 104.

61 Dating and chronology are some of the most difficult interpretive challenges of the Avesta, as noted in Alessandro Bausani's classic work Persia Religiosa (1959) recently translated by Marchesi, J. M. as Religion in Iran (New York, 2000).Google Scholar

62 Herzfeld, “Zarathustra: Teil I,” 78–79.

63 Herzfeld, “Zarathustra: Teil I,” 77.

64 Herzfeld, “Zarathustra: Teil I,” 78.

65 Childe, The Aryans, 37. Childe himself disagreed with this dating, arguing that Zoroaster had lived centuries earlier.

66 Meyer, Eduard, “Zur Einführung,” Deutsche Forschung. Aus der Arbeit der Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft). Heft 5. Völkerzusammenhänge und Ausgrabungen, ed. Meyer, Eduard (Berlin, 1928), 7.Google Scholar

67 Herzfeld, “Zarathustra: Teil I,” 79–105.

68 Herzfeld, “Zarathustra: Teil I,” 116.

69 Herzfeld, “Zarathustra: Teil II,” 118.

70 Reading Herodotus against archaeological evidence—namely the inscriptions at Behistun, Persepolis and Nakhsh-i Rustam (see “Zarathustra: Teil I,” 79)—Herzfeld dismissed him as a central source. As he wrote, “most of what he says can be proved by archaeological observation to be wrong.” Herzfeld, Ernst, Archaeological History of Iran (London, 1935), 39.Google Scholar

71 Meyer wrote that Herzfeld was Germany's “most thorough expert on Persian monuments and culture.” Via his “close contact with the Persian government for many years,” he “has acquainted us with a surprising wealth of archaeological monuments, all of which had been completely unknown.” Meyer, “Zur Einführung,” 6.

72 Ernst Herzfeld Papers, Series 2: Journals, Notebook N-47, 1: 8, 18–19, 37.

73 Meyer, “Zur Einführung,” 6.

74 The central issue here was the fate of the French archaeological concession. PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Vol. 1: Herzfeld to Foreign Office, 28 January 1927. On the political issues around Godard's hire see Grigor, “Recultivating ‘Good Taste’” and Goode, Negotiating for the Past, 127–40.

75 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Vol. 2: Messenger de Teheran, 23 January 1929; “Notice dans l'affaire du traitement de Monsieur le Professeur Herzfeld,” 4 June 1931.

76 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Vols 1–2: Messenger de Teheran, 10 March 1927; Schulenburg to Herzfeld, 8 October 1930.

77 On the meanings of Persepolis in Iran see Mousavi, Ali, “Persepolis in Retrospect: Histories of Discovery and Archaeological Exploration at the Ruins of Ancient Parseh,” Ars Orientalis, XXXII (2002): 209–51.Google Scholar

78 Herzfeld contributed articles on Persepolis to the Illustrated London News. Ernst Herzfeld, “The Magnificent Discovery at Persepolis: Stairway Sculptures That Will Take Rank Among the Greatest Works of Art Surviving From Antiquity,” The Illustrated London News (25 March 1933), 402–06.

79 Goode, Negotiating for the Past, 151.

80 Goode, Negotiating for the Past, 155; PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Vol. III: Herzfeld to Blücher, 21 July 1934.

81 Goode, Negotiating for the Past, 141–65. According to Goode, Pope had his own record of antiquities smuggling, including items allegedly stolen from Persepolis.

82 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, v.

83 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 5.

84 Ernst Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East (London, 1941), 4.

85 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 6–7 (emphasis original).

86 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 7. In this way the controversial question of the Aryan homeland was solved by reference to a native Iranian source, the Avesta.

87 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 8.

88 Herzfeld's contemporary, the archaeologist Childe, had also written on ancient Iranians as “a branch of the Aryan family … in occupation of the highlands of Iran before 1000 B.C.” Childe, The Aryans, 40.

89 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 41.

90 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 41.

91 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 43.

92 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 43.

93 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 75.

94 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 47, 48, 50.

95 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 52. The Iranian interpretation of Alexander is explored by Pierre Briant, Historie de l'Empire Perse: de Cyrus à Alexandre (Paris, 1996).

96 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 53.

97 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 54.

98 Margaret Root, “Prismatic Prehistory: Ernst Herzfeld on Early Iran,” and Pierre Briant, “Milestones in the Development of Achaemenid Historiography in the Era of Ernst Herzfeld,” both in Gunter and Hauser, eds., Ernst Herzfeld, are interesting on this topic and are drawn on in the account that follows.

99 See Briant, “Milestones in the Development of Achaemenid Historiography,” 266–77, on the work of George Rawlinson, Ferdinand Justi and Theodor Nöldeke.

100 Justi, Ferd[inand], “Geschichte Irans von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Ausgang der Sasaniden,” in Grundriss der Iranischen Philologie, ed. Geiger, Wilhelm and Kuhn, Ernst (Strassburg, 1896), 400.Google Scholar

101 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 29.

102 Root, “Prismatic Prehistory,” 240.

103 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 43.

104 Herzfeld, Archaeological History, 40.

105 Root, “Prismatic Prehistory,” 240.

106 Widengren, Geo, “Henrik Samuel Nyberg and Iranian Studies,” Monumentum H.S. Nyberg (Leiden and Tehran, 1975), II: 429.Google Scholar

107 Widengren, “Henrik Samuel Nyberg,” 425.

108 See Höfler, Otto, Kultische Geheimbünde der Germanen (Frankfurt am Main, 1934).Google Scholar On Höfler and right-wing scholarship on Aryan folklore, see Ginzburg, Carlo, “Germanic Mythology and Nazism: Thoughts on an Old Book by Georges Dumezil,” Clues, Myths and the Historical Method, trans. John and Tedeschi, Anne (Baltimore, 1989), 136–40;Google Scholar Closs, Alois, “Iranistik und Völkerkunde,” Monumentum H.S. Nyberg (Leiden and Tehran, 1975), I: 157–77.Google Scholar

109 The German Iranologist Walter Bruno Henning summed up the debates in Zoroaster: Politician or Witchdoctor? (London, 1951); Widengren, “Henrik Samuel Nyberg,” 434.

110 On Aryanism and anti-colonial nationalism see Ballantyne, Orientalism and Race.

111 Margaret Schlauch's, Who Are the Aryans? (New York, n.d.) was an explicitly anti-fascist rendering of Aryan history. Schlauch argued for returning the topic to the study of human migration, language and culture rather than race.

112 Poliakov, Aryan Myth, 188; Taylor, Isaac, The Origin of the Aryans, 2nd ed. (London, 1892), 7–8.Google ScholarPubMed

113 PA AA Berlin Wipert von Blücher Papers: Persisches Tagebuch, 2: 581.

114 Persisches Tagebuch, 2: 581. Blücher noted that the government's interpretation went beyond Herzfeld's work, which had stressed the historical migration of the Aryans into Iran and not Iran itself as the Aryan homeland.

115 Breasted as cited in Goode, Negotiating for the Past, 159.

116 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Band III: DGT/Blücher to Foreign Office, 25 January 1935.

117 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Band III: Langsdorff to the Reichs- und Preussischen Minister für Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung, 20 June 1935.

118 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Band III:Hans Ehelolf to the Reichs- und Preussischen Minister für Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung, 27 July 1935.

119 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Band III: Walter Andrae to the Reichs- und Preussischen Minister für Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung, 1 August 1935.

120 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Band III: DGT/Blücher to Foreign Office Berlin, No. 137, 25 January 1935. However, Blücher himself disagreed with Herzfeld's assessment of Iran's Aryanness, seeing modern Iran as characterized by centuries of racial mixing. As was common in German scholarship, Blücher raised a barrier between ancient “Aryan purity” and modern Iranian racial degeneracy. Blücher, Persisches Tagebuch, 2: 581–82.

121 Each time Herzfeld was exonerated of the charges of antiquities smuggling, but each exoneration was followed by a further accusation. His luggage was rifled through and belongings were held. Each time Herzfeld defended his ownership of the object in question. PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Band III: DGT/Blücher to Foreign Office, No. 137, 25 January 1935.

122 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Band III: Herzfeld to Blücher, 9 November 1934.

123 Goode, Negotiating for the Past, 162.

124 PA AA Berlin DGT Box 26, III. 10, Band III: Herzfeld to DGT/Repnow, 3 September 1936.

125 According to Root, Arthur Pope and the German archaeologist Erich Schmidt engaged after his death in “a crude and calculated effort systematically to mute Herzfeld's legacy.” See “Prismatic Prehistory,” 247–48.