Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T19:49:37.787Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Displaced Masculinity: Gender and Ethnicity among Iranian men in Sweden

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2022

Shahram Khosravi*
Affiliation:
Department of Social Anthropology, Stockholm University

Abstract

Masculinity, like other kinds of social identity, is an ongoing construction in a dialogue between one's self-image and others' perceptions of one. The interplay between ethnicity and masculinity is a main theme in this article. Due to geographical displacement, the Iranian man's masculine identity has been challenged and renegotiated on the one hand by Iranian women's struggle for emancipation and on the other hand by the Swedish mediawork. Iranian men are displaced from the position of having a powerful gaze, which fixed and controlled women into a position of being an object of the gaze of others. The dominant gaze in Sweden makes them (in)visible in the same way their gaze makes women (in)visible in Iran.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The International Society for Iranian Studies 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I would like to thank Fataneh Farahani, Don Kulick, Lena Gerholm and the anonymous reviewers for their comments on early drafts.

References

1 Graham, M. and Khosravi, S., “Home is Where You Make It: Repatriation and Diaspora Culture among Iranians in Sweden,Journal of Refugee Studies 10 (1997): 115133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Graham, M. and Khosravi, S., “Reordering Public and Private in Iranian Cyberspace: Identity, Politics, and Mobilization,Identities 9 (2002): 219246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Khosravi, S., “Displacement and Entrepreneurship: Iranian Small Businesses in Stockholm,Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 25 (1999): 493508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

2 Statistics Sweden 2008, befolkningsstatistisk del 3 (Stockholm, 2008).Google Scholar

3 Hosseini-Kaladjahi, Hassan, Iranians in Sweden: Economic, Cultural and Social Integration (Stockholm, 1997).Google Scholar

4 Khosravi, Shahram, Young and Defiant in Tehran (Philadelphia, 2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

5 Najmabadi, A., “Reading Wiles of Women's Stories as Fictions of Masculinity,Imagined Masculinities: Male Identity and Culture in the Modern Middle East (London, 2000): 155.Google Scholar

6 Shahidian, H., “Gender and Sexuality among Immigrant Iranians in Canada,Sexualities 2 (1999): 189222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

7 Darvishpour, Mehradad, Invandrarkvinnor som bryter mönstret (Stockholm 2003).Google Scholar

8 Iranian feminist groups in Sweden are well organized and very active. Stödkommittén för kvinnor i Iran (Support Committee for Women in Iran) is a Swedish-Iranian network, which, alongside mobilization for various activities, publishes the monthly Kvinnor mot fundamentalism (Women against Fundamentalism). Sadaye Zanan (Women's Voice) and Radio Zanan (Women's Radio) are two local radio stations that broadcast programs several hours a week in Persian in Stockholm.

9 Nagel, J., Race, Ethnicity, and Sexuality: Intimate Intersections, Forbidden Frontiers (New York, 2003): 10.Google Scholar

10 Nagel, J., “Ethnicity and Sexuality,Annual Review of Sociology 26 (2000): 113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

11 Espín, O.M., Women Crossing Boundaries: A Psychology of Immigration and Transformations of Sexuality (London, 1999): 125.Google Scholar

12 Yuval-Davis, N., “Fundamentalism, Multiculturalism and Women in Britain,Race, Culture, and Difference (London, 1992): 285.Google Scholar

13 Sartre, J.-P., No Exit and Three Other Plays (New York, 1944 [1989]).Google Scholar

14 Sartre, J.-P., Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (New York, 1956): 252261.Google Scholar

15 J.-P. Sartre, No Exit.

16 R. Ellison, Invisible Man (Harmondsworth, 1952 [1987]): 7.

17 Butler, J., “Endangered/Endangering: Schematic Racism and White Paranoia,Reading Rodney King/Reading Urban Uprising (New York, 2003): 16.Google Scholar

18 Butler, “Endangered/Endangering”: 17.

19 Fanon, F., Black Skin, White Masks (London, 1952 [1986]): 160.Google Scholar The issue of the power of gaze is multifaceted and ambivalent. In/visibility of a group can bring them powerlessness and leave them overexposed and fragile but it can bring them agency and power. In his analysis of the colonial male gaze and women's veil in “Algeria Unveiled,” Veil: Veiling, Representation and Contemporary Art (Massachusetts, [1959] 2003)Google Scholar, Fanon shows how Algerian women manipulated the gaze of French soldiers—to be visible unveiled women with French “look” and invisible as Algerian Muslims—in order to resist the colonial power.

20 Kaplan, A., Women & Film: Both Sides of the Camera (London, 1999): 1415.Google Scholar

21 Naficy, H., “The Averted Gaze in Iranian Postrevolutionary Cinema,Public Culture 3 (1999), 2: 33.Google Scholar

22 Naficy, H., “Mediating the Other: American Pop Culture Representation of Postrevolutionary Iran,The US Media and the Middle East: Image and Perception (Westport, 1995): 74.Google Scholar

23 Brune, Y., “Invandrare i mediearkivets typgalleri,Maktens (o)lika förklädnader: kön, klass, och etnicitet i det postkoloniala Sverige (Stockholm, 2002): 176.Google Scholar

24 Bredstöm, A., “Maskulinitet och kamp om nationella arenor: reflektioner kring bilden av ‘invandrarkillar’ I svensk media,Maktens (o)lika förklädnader: kön, klass, och etnicitet i det postkoloniala Sverige (Stockholm, 2002): 204.Google Scholar

25 Ibid:183. A series of honor killings among immigrant groups from the Middle East generated a hot debate in Sweden between those who claimed that the honor killing had nothing to do with immigrants' culture and those who emphasized the role of their culture in the incident.

26 Ambjörnsson, F., I en klass för sig: genus, klass och sexualitet bland gymnasietjejer (Stockholm, 2004): 252.Google Scholar

27 Månsson, S.-A., Cultural Conflict and the Swedish Sexual Myth: The Male Immigrant's Encounter with Swedish Sexual and Cohabitation Culture (Westport, 1993): 219.Google Scholar

28 Butler, “Endangered/Endangering”:19.

29 Dagens Nyheter, 28 October 1998.

30 Aftonbladet 25 October 1998.

31 Aftonbladet 25 October 1998.

32 Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, 165.

33 H. Naficy, “Mediating the Other,” 84.

34 Liliequist, M., I skuggan av ‘Inte utan min dotter’: exiliraniers identitetsarbete (Stockholm, 1993).Google Scholar

35 Behroz, F., Fångarnas Kör (Stockholm, 2001).Google Scholar

36 Ahmadi, N., “Migration Challenges Views on Sexuality,Ethnic and Racial Studies 26 (2003): 678.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

37 Darvishpour, , Invandrarkvinnor som bryter mönstre: 113.Google Scholar

38 Tigervall, C., Folkhemsk film: med ‘invandraren’ I rollen som den sympatiske Andre (Umeå, 2005): 76.Google Scholar

39 Aftonbladet, 27 November 2003.

40 Ahmad, L., Women and Gender in Islam (New Haven, 1992).Google Scholar

41 Brune, “Invandrare i mediearkivets typgalleri,” 161.

42 Abu-Lughod, L., “Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving?American Anthropologist 104 (2002): 3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Weber, C., “Not Without My Sister(s),International Feminist Journal of Politics 3 (2005): 358377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

43 Brune, “Invandrare i mediearkivets typgalleri,” 178. Needless to say the fear of Muslim men is not specific to Sweden. Pope John Paul II, no less, warned Catholic women on Friday, 14 May 2004 to “think hard before marrying a Muslim man.” He mentioned “profound cultural and religious differences” between the two faiths, particularly concerning the rights of women who are referred to as “the least protected member of the Muslim family” which lead to the “bitter experience” Western Catholics have with Muslim husbands (http://www.vaticanpost.com. Accessed 16 May 2004).

44 Cf. Said, E., Orientalism (New York, 1979): 23.Google Scholar

45 Shahidian, “Gender and Sexuality among Immigrant Iranians in Canada,” 206.

46 Gender program on P1, Swedish radio (16-6-2004).

47 Fanon, , Black Skin, White Masks: 170.Google Scholar

48 Eng, D.L., Racial Castration: Managing Masculinity in Asian America (Durham, 2001).Google Scholar

49 Haeri, S., Law of Desire: Temporary Marriage in Iran (London, 1989): 229.Google Scholar

50 Ben Jelloun, T., La plus haute des solitudes (Paris, 1979).Google Scholar

51 For further discussion on this topic see Khosravi, Young and Defiant in Tehran.

52 Herzfeld, M., “Within and Without: The Category of Female in the Ethnography of Modern Greece,Gender and Power in Rural Greece (Princeton, 1986): 221.Google Scholar

53 Zinovieff, S., “Hunters and Hunted: Kamaki and the Ambiguities of Sexual Predation in a Greek Town,Contested Identities: Gender and Kinship in Modern Greece (Princeton, 1991): 216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

54 Cohen, E., “Arab Boys and Tourist Girls in a Mixed Jewish Arab Community,International Journal of Comparative Sociology 12 (1971): 4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

55 Fanon, , Black Skin, White Masks: 63.Google Scholar

57 Ibid: 254.

56 Ambjörnsson, I en klass för sig: 246.

58 Ibid: 267.

59 Cf. Frankenberg, R., White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (London, 1993): 77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

60 Ambjörnsson, I en klass för sig: 257.