We analyzed the recent (< 25 yr) spread in New Hampshire, USA, of the exotic tree Kalopanax septemlobus, native to Asia. The invasion was likely initiated by a single tree planted ca. 1972. Our objective was to assess the viability of the invasion, especially in light of the small propagule size. We tallied, mapped, aged, and measured the height and growth of K. septemlobus individuals at two sites, the University of New Hampshire campus (UC) and Thompson Farm (TF), both in Durham. We found over 3,800 plants at UC and 270 at TF in < 120 ha (296 ac) total area. Plant age ranged from 0 to 22 yr, and UC plants were as far as 775 m (2,543 ft) from the purported parent tree. Annual height growth was comparable to midtolerant native trees. Plants occurred in both open and forested habitats, and the mean level of photosynthetically active radiation incident on understory plants was 4 to 6% of full sun. The large population size, shade tolerance, rapid height growth, and ability to sprout from damaged stems suggest potential for K. septemlobus to invade and persist in forests, the most common natural ecosystem in the northeastern United States. We further suggest that small propagule size, likely a single tree, has not prevented K. septemlobus from initiating a spatially extensive and vigorous population. Kalopanax septemlobus has been planted as an ornamental in the northeastern United States, and prevention of region-wide invasion might depend on removal of these trees, even when they occur as single individuals.

Kentucky bluegrass was introduced into the present-day United States in the 1600s. Since that time, Kentucky bluegrass has spread throughout the United States and Canada becoming prolific in some areas. In the past century, Kentucky bluegrass has been a presence and often a dominant species in some prairies in the Northern Great Plains. Sometime within the past few decades, Kentucky bluegrass has become the most-common species on the untilled, native prairie sites of much of North and South Dakota. In this article, we hypothesize how Kentucky bluegrass has come to dominate one of the most endangered ecosystems in North America—the prairie—through a historical, ecological, and climatological lens. We urge others to start addressing the invasion of Kentucky bluegrass with both new research and management strategies.

Russian-olive is a small tree or large multistemmed shrub that was introduced to Canada and the United States from Eurasia in the early 1900s. It was provisioned in large numbers during the last century to prairie farmers as a shelterbelt plant and remains a popular and widely available ornamental. Now invasive within some riparian ecosystems in the western United States, Russian-olive has been declared noxious in the states of Colorado and New Mexico. With traits including high shade tolerance and a symbiotic association with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Russian-olive has the potential to dominate riparian vegetation and thus radically transform riparian ecosystems. Especially alarming is its capacity to influence nutrient dynamics within aquatic food webs. Our objective is to draw attention to Russian-olive as a potential threat to riparian ecosystems within Canada, especially in the southwest, where invasion is becoming commonplace. We review what is known about its biology and about the threats it poses to native organisms and ecosystems, and we summarize management and control efforts that are currently underway. We conclude by proposing a research agenda aimed at clarifying whether and how Russian-olive poses a threat to riparian ecosystems within western Canada.

Introduced plants threaten biodiversity and ecosystem processes, including carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycles, but little is known about the threshold at which such effects occur. We examined the impact of the invasive shrub Amur honeysuckle on soil organic carbon (SOC) and N density at study sites that varied in invasion history. In plots with and without honeysuckle, we measured honeysuckle abundance and size (basal area) and extracted soil cores. SOC and N densities were highest at the site with the longest invasion history and highest invasion intensity (i.e., greatest abundance and basal area of honeysuckle). Basal area of honeysuckle positively affected SOC and N densities likely because of increased litter decomposition and altered microbial communities. Because honeysuckle increases forest net primary productivity (NPP) and SOC, it also may play a role in C sequestration. Our results demonstrate the need to consider the influence of invasion history and intensity when evaluating the potential impact of invasive species.

Tall buttercup is an invasive forb that has been reported in all but eight states and one Canadian province. The species has been of concern in Montana where it has invaded over 8,300 ha, and it has been particularly problematic in irrigated hayfield meadows that are used for forage production. This study sought to develop an integrated management strategy to control tall buttercup while maintaining forage production. Research was conducted over 2 yr at flood-irrigated and subirrigated hayfield meadows near Twin Bridges, MT. Treatments were randomly applied in a split-plot design with four replications at both sites. Herbicide treatments occurred at the whole-plot level: nonsprayed, aminopyralid (172 g ai ha−1), aminocyclopyrachlor + chlorsulfuron (83 g ai ha−1 + 33 g ai ha−1), and dicamba (981 g ai ha−1). Split plots consisted of mowing and fertilization (28 kg N ha−1). All herbicides provided up to 2 yr of tall buttercup control at both sites. In the second year, aminocyclopyrachlor + chlorsulfuron and aminopyralid reduced tall buttercup by 93% and 96%, respectively, for the subirrigated and flood-irrigated sites. At the subirrigated site, mowing reduced tall buttercup by 71%, and fertilization reduced it by 57%. Forage decreased following aminocyclopyrachlor + chlorsulfuron treatments. The integration of herbicide, mowing, and fertilization did not improve tall buttercup control.

Introduced accidentally from South America, deeproot sedge is rapidly expanding in a variety of habitats throughout the southeastern United States. Of particular concern is its rapid expansion, naturalization, and formation of monocultures in Texas coastal prairie, one of the most imperiled temperate ecoregions in North America. The objective of this research was to examine how deeproot sedge responds to prescribed fire, to the herbicide imazapic, and to treatment combinations of both. Combinations of prescribed fire and imazapic treatments and imazapic-only treatments effectively reduced deeproot sedge cover and frequency. However, plots exposed to dormant season fires (with no imazapic) had greater deeproot sedge cover after burn treatments were applied, indicating that coastal prairie management using only dormant season prescribed fire will not work toward reduction or management of this exotic invasive species. Although deeproot sedge cover was often reduced in fire–imazapic treatment combinations, it was still present in treatment plots. Moreover, desirable functional plant groups (i.e., native bunchgrasses) did not respond positively to the fire–imazapic treatments, but in some instances, woody plant coverage increased. Repeated, long-term approaches using integrated and coordinated efforts with multiple treatment options will be necessary to restore community structure to desired compositional levels. Such integrated approaches should be effective in reducing deeproot sedge frequency, cover, and extent to more manageable levels throughout its introduced geographic range.

Brachypodium sylvaticum, a shade-tolerant, forest dwelling, and aggressive invasive grass native to Eurasia, is a noxious weed in California, Oregon, and Washington. This species could cause ecosystem collapse by altering forest fire regimes. To examine interactions with fire, we divided two Willamette National Forest sites into eight units and randomly selected half for treatment with prescribed fire in spring 2011. We assessed the effect of B. sylvaticum on fire (severity and intensity) as well as the effect of fire on B. sylvaticum (cover, seedling emergence, and dispersal). We found that B. sylvaticum cover decreased fire severity but had no effect on intensity. Furthermore, fire severity influenced B. sylvaticum cover; in areas receiving low-severity fire, the grass increased from 21 ± 15.05 to 34 ± 15.81%, but in areas of high-severity fire, cover remained consistently around 0% (0 ± 0% cover in yr 1 to 0.2 5± 0.25% in yr 3). In the field, prescribed fire decreased seedling emergence by 32% compared to controls, but not in an associated greenhouse experiment. However, in the greenhouse, severely burned plots had zero emergence, compared to 0.29 ± 0.14 seedlings low-severity m−2 plot. Fire severity also influenced dispersal in the field; we monitored plots with < 0.5% cover B. sylvaticum initially; when these plots experienced low severity fire, they had greater B. sylvaticum cover (increasing 1,200%), suggesting increased dispersal with less severe fires. High-severity dispersal plots did not experience increased cover. High severity fires have the potential to control the grass, but low-severity fires will likely increase its cover.

One of the highest priority invasive species at both Yosemite and Sequoia and Kings Canyon national parks is Holcus lanatus L. (common velvetgrass), a perennial bunchgrass that invades mid-elevation montane meadows. Despite velvetgrass being a high priority species, there is little information available on control techniques. The goal of this project was to evaluate the short-term response of a single application of common chemical and manual velvetgrass control techniques. The study was conducted at three montane sites in Yosemite National Park. Glyphosate spot-spray treatments were applied at 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0% concentrations, and compared with hand pulling to evaluate effects on cover of common velvetgrass, cover of other plant species, and community species richness. Posttreatment year 1 cover of common velvetgrass was 12.1% ± 1.6 in control plots, 6.3% ± 1.5 averaged over the four chemical treatments (all chemical treatments performed similarly), and 13.6% ± 1.7 for handpulled plots. This represents an approximately 50% reduction in common velvetgrass cover in chemically- treated plots recoded posttreatment year 1 and no statistically significant reduction in hand pulled plots compared with controls. However, there was no treatment effect in posttreatment year 2, and all herbicide application rates performed similarly. In addition, there were no significant treatment effects on nontarget species or species richness. These results suggest that for this level of infestation and habitat type, (1) one year of hand pulling is not an effective control method and (2) glyphosate provides some level of control in the short-term without impact to nontarget plant species, but the effect is temporary as a single year of glyphosate treatment is ineffective over a two-year period.

Nonnative invasive plants (NNIP) have far-reaching effects on native ecosystems worldwide. Understanding the role of generalist seed dispersers in spreading NNIP across the landscape is important to the conservation of native ecosystems and to the management of NNIP. We studied white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) as a seed disperser in a mixed maritime pine (Pinus spp.) forests on Parris Island, SC, with particular interest in the dispersal of Chinese tallowtree [Triadica sebifera (L.) Small], a highly invasive tree species in the southeastern United States, which is a management concern on Parris Island, SC. We collected deer scat pellet groups along transects in two forest types: those that had recently been treated with silvicultural timber harvest (thinned) and those that have not been so treated (unthinned). Using two pellet-treatment methods, directly planting or rinsing and sorting, we determined that, out of 25 species grown under greenhouse conditions, 28% (n = 7) were nonnative, small-seeded, herbaceous species. However, T. sebifera was not identified in either of the two treatment methods. Recent forest thinning significantly affected the number of species determined in deer pellet groups (F = 8.37; df = 1; P < 0.01), with more native plant species identified in unthinned (x̄ = 25 ± 11) than in thinned (x̄ = 3 ± 10) forest stands (F = 5.33; df = 1; P = 0.02). Our results indicate that white-tailed deer are actively dispersing nonnative seeds but not those of T. sebifera or other woody NNIP.

The Sheyenne National Grassland (SNG) is a native tall grass and mixed grass prairie located in southeastern North Dakota. Approximately half of the SNG has been invaded by leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) and control methods have been limited. Many herbicides cannot be utilized at the SNG due to sandy soils (> 80%) and shallow groundwater, nor can they be applied near the western prairie fringed orchid (Platanthera praeclara Sheviak and Bowles), a federally listed threatened plant found on the SNG. Quinclorac and aminocyclopyrachlor were considered for use on the SNG but potential to enter the groundwater was unclear. Movement of quinclorac and aminocyclopyrachlor was evaluated in 70 cm soil columns that simulated field conditions from five ecological sites. Quinclorac leached further following the heavy rainfall event of 15 cm in 48 h compared to the annual precipitation of 51 cm applied over 9 wk. Quinclorac leached approximately 45 cm into the soil profile averaged over all soil types and both precipitation events but never exceeded 65 cm regardless of soil type. Aminocyclopyrachlor leaching was greater than quinclorac and moved through all soil types into the leachate following both watering regimes. Desorption of both herbicides was incomplete. Approximately 10 and 32% of applied aminocyclopyrachlor and quinclorac, respectively, remained in the top 5 cm of soil regardless of soil type or watering regime. Quinclorac but not aminocyclopyrachlor was considered suitable for use at the SNG to control leafy spurge and has the added benefit of not harming the western prairie fringed orchid.

Napiergrass has potential as a cellulosic biofuel crop because of its rapid growth habit in the southern United States. However, it is also listed as a potential invasive species by the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council. For field renovation, information about napiergrass control in response to tillage and herbicides is required. Field studies were initiated to evaluate control of napiergrass established in fields for over 3 yr at Plains, GA, and Tifton, GA. For tillage and POST herbicides, imazapyr plus glyphosate consistently controlled napiergrass relative to diclosulam plus glyphosate, sulfentrazone plus glyphosate, or tillage in terms of visual injury, stem height and dry biomass reduction. One application of imazapyr plus glyphosate controlled napiergrass 74 and 94%, and reduced plant stem height to 6 and 15% of the nontreated control. When diclosulam plus glyphosate, sulfentrazone plus glyphosate, or tillage was used alone with no sequential herbicides, napiergrass control ranged from 12 to 33%; when these control tactics were followed by two sequential applications of either sethoxydim or glyphosate, napiergrass control varied from 45 to 99%. Reductions in plant heights were reflective of injury 47 d after final herbicide applications (May/June). Napiergrass yield in dry biomass production was reduced by imazapyr plus glyphosate ≥ 86% relative to the nontreated control (NTC). Diclosulam plus glyphosate, sulfentrazone plus glyphosate, or tillage alone was not effective in reducing napiergrass dry biomass yields ranging from 1 to 47% compared with the NTC; when these treatments were followed by sequential applications of sethoxydim or glyphosate, napiergrass dry biomass was reduced 46 to 91% compared with the NTC. Tillage plus two applications of sethoxydim or glyphosate exhibited control potential because they provided levels of napiergrass control similar to imazapyr-based treatments. Tillage plus multiple applications of sethoxydim or glyphosate offers flexibility to crop rotations as compared with the residual herbicide imazapyr, which has many crop rotation restrictions because of carryover concerns.

The macrophyte swamp stonecrop has invaded a wide range of wetland habitats across Europe. An experiment was conducted within an invaded fen habitat, which tested whether the presence of grazing disturbance affected the relative abundance of swamp stonecrop, and whether any detected effect was suppressive or facilitative. The abundance of swamp stonecrop and co-occurring resident plants was monitored within fenced grazing exclosures and in adjacent unfenced plots. Swamp stonecrop abundance was higher in the unfenced plots compared to the fenced exclosures (t(87) = 28.974, P < 0.001), whereas the abundance of co-occurring plants was higher in the fenced exclosures compared to the unfenced plots (t(87) = 6.264, P < 0.001). These results indicate that the presence of large vertebrates could facilitate a higher abundance of swamp stonecrop in situations where competitive resident plant species were selectively removed by these grazing animals.

Techniques for preventing crazyweed toxicity in livestock have generally fallen into two categories: excluding livestock access to infested ranges during early spring and fall, and controlling crazyweed populations through herbicide application. Although picloram has been used to control crazyweed effectively in the past, aminopyralid has shown efficacy at lower application rates, exhibits less potential off-target movement, and has been classified as a reduced-risk product. Differences in the response of silky crazyweed and nontarget grasses and forbs to picloram + 2,4-D and aminopyralid + 2,4-D were investigated. Picloram + 2,4-D was applied at a rate of 0.3 kg ae ha−1 picloram + 1.1 kg ae ha−1 2,4-D, and aminopyralid + 2,4-D was applied at a rate of 0.1 kg ae ha−1 aminopyralid + 1.2 kg ae ha−1 2,4-D. Silky crazyweed canopy cover, number of flowering stalks, plant size, and biomass decreased 15 mo after herbicide treatments (MAT) with average percentage of relative reductions of 92, 95, 90, and 99%, respectively. Crazyweed density decreased by 1.5 ± 0.2 SE plants m−2 and 1.3 ± 0.2 plants m−2, a relative reduction of 95 and 80%, 15 MAT in aminopyralid + 2,4-D– and picloram + 2,4-D–treated plots, respectively. Plots treated with aminopyralid + 2,4-D had 4% lower nontarget forb canopy cover than did picloram + 2,4-D plots 15 MAT. Grass biomass remained similar within treatments over time for control, aminopyralid + 2,4-D and picloram +2,4-D plots, and was similar in all plots 15 MAT. Plots treated with herbicides had, on average, 11% greater grass cover than did control plots 15 MAT (aminopyralid + 2,4-D: 89%; picloram + 2,4-D: 85%; control: 76%).

The expansion of populations of invasive species continues to compromise the ecological and economic integrity of our natural resources. The negative effects of invasive species on native biota are widely reported. However, less is known about how the duration (i.e., age of oldest invaders) and intensity (i.e., density and percent cover) of an invasion influences native plant diversity and abundance at the microsite scale. We examined the influence of density, percent cover, and age of Amur honeysuckle (a nonnative invasive shrub), and several environmental factors on native plant taxa at 12 mixed hardwood forests in Indiana, USA. Overall, study sites with the greatest taxonomic diversity (Shannon's Diversity; H′), richness (S), percent cover, and density of native vegetation also had the lowest percent cover of Amur honeysuckle in the upper vertical stratum (1.01 to 5 m). Based on linear mixed model analyses, percent cover of Amur honeysuckle in the upper vertical stratum was consistently and negatively correlated with H′, S, total percent cover, and woody seedling density of native taxa at the microsite scale (P < 0.05). Duration of Amur honeysuckle at the microsite scale was not significant when percent cover of Amur honeysuckle in the upper vertical stratum was included in models. However, duration of Amur honeysuckle invasion was significantly correlated with dependent variables and with upper-stratum honeysuckle cover, suggesting that older Amur honeysuckle in a microsite resulted in greater light competition from above for native understory plant species. Beyond increased cover and shading, our results do not provide evidence of duration-related effects from long-term dominance of honeysuckle in our sampled mixed hardwood forest sites.

Yellow toadflax (Linaria vulgaris P. Mill.) infestations in North Dakota increased 300-fold from 1997 to 2011, when the plant was added to the state noxious weed list. Long-term control of other invasive species had included biological control agents, but no effective agents for yellow toadflax had been identified, so a control program using herbicides was needed. The objective was to shift from short-term control with picloram applied in the fall at maximum allowed rates to long-term management with minimal nontarget species impact with an adaptive management approach. Yellow toadflax control was increased from an average of 64% with picloram at 1,120 g ha−1 alone 12 mo after treatment (MAT) to over 90% when applied with diflufenzopyr while the picloram rate was reduced 50%. Yellow toadflax control with aminocyclopyrachlor applied at 140 g ha−1 ranged from 91 to 49% 12 MAT when applied in June or September, respectively. In contrast, yellow toadflax control with picloram plus dicamba plus diflufenzopyr averaged > 90% regardless of application date during the growing season. Land managers now have at least two options for long-term yellow toadflax control with a wide window of application timing. The goal of replacing a single high-use–rate herbicide treatment was met but both picloram and aminocyclopyrachlor can injure many desirable forbs. However, application timing can now be adjusted to have the least impact on nontarget species. The adaptive development program led to a 58% reduction in yellow toadflax infestations in North Dakota by 2014.

Southern California grasslands have largely been type-converted to dominance by exotic annual grasses, leading to displacement of many native grass and forb species. Crimson fountaingrass, Pennisetum setaceum, an exotic perennial C4 species and a relatively new invader to California, is expanding to areas currently occupied by purple needlegrass, Stipa pulchra, a C3 native. We predicted that fountaingrass seedlings might withstand cool season competition in California's Mediterranean-type climate and establish in Stipa pulchra grasslands due to less competition during the warm, dry summer season, and that interactions might be influenced by density. A field experiment was conducted to examine competitive interactions of the two species from the cool winter season to the warm summer season. As predicted, Stipa produced greater aboveground biomass in the cool season and showed strong intraspecific competition, as well as interspecific suppression of Pennisetum growth, whereas Pennisetum showed no suppression of Stipa. In the warm season, Stipa showed relatively less suppression of Pennisetum, erasing significant differences, and Pennisetum showed increased growth. Results of this study show that C3Stipa can suppress initial growth of C4Pennisetum in the cool season, but in warmer months, Pennisetum can overcome this initial suppression at both low and high densities, even within a Mediterranean-type climate with little to no summer rainfall. Thus, in southern California, temporal niche partitioning due to photosynthetic pathway in these two species can allow Pennisetum invasion. Given the similarity in life history and growth form of Stipa and Pennisetum, few options exist for controlling Pennisetum in habitats where Stipa occurs. In these cases, restoration plantings of desirable species are essential in order to reestablish competitive vegetation that will be more resistant to invasion.

Composting is a common practice for management of herbaceous yard materials and other decomposable materials. Although composting is promoted by state agencies for many materials, a notable exception is invasive plants due to concerns about spreading propagules with the finished product. To address this issue, we measured the viability of garlic mustard and common buckthorn seeds exposed to turned or static composting methods. Piles were built in 2012 and 2013, and seeds from both species were inserted and monitored for viability. Seed viability was reduced rapidly regardless of year, composting method, or species. Viability of seeds was zero within 7 and 15 d of composting for garlic mustard and common buckthorn, respectively, in both years. Results indicate that composting facilities are able to render the seeds of these invasive plants nonviable using either composting method because inactivation is within the composting timeframes typically practiced by the industry. This includes the process to further reduce pathogens (PFRP) with thresholds of 55 C for 15 d for the compost management process used for this trial.

Ventenata dubia is an exotic winter annual grass that has invaded Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) lands, improved pastures, intensively managed hay fields, and rangelands within the Intermountain Pacific Northwest (PNW). Currently, producers are attempting to develop V. dubia management strategies with little knowledge of its life history traits. We conducted several studies to characterize V. dubia life history patterns. Preliminary germination trials were completed to describe primary and secondary dormancy characteristics. Field studies were conducted to evaluate (1) seed bank persistence patterns, (2) seedling emergence patterns under V. dubia litter, and (3) seedling emergence and phenological development patterns within timothy hay, CRP, and rangeland habitats. Preliminary germination trials suggest that the after-ripening period required for loss of dormancy does not exceed 30 d and that dormancy breakdown peaks at approximately 90 d, after which germination occurs over a wide range of temperatures (9 to 29 C). A small fraction (< 1%) of the seed bank remained germinable up to 3 yr after burial at 2 cm depth in a grassland habitat. Seedling emergence and survival was significantly greater under high V. dubia litter layers (100% cover) compared with bare surface during the drier study year because of higher soil moisture levels maintained under litter. Across habitat types, mean seedling emergence (50% of total) occurred between 33 and 94 growing degree days (GDD) after soil moisture rose above the permanent wilting point in the fall. Seedling emergence periodicity varied among habitat types in relation to spring seedling emergence, ranging from 0 to 13% of total emergence per year. Phenological development differed across sites and years by up to several hundred GDDs but was closely aligned to Julian days. This collection of studies improves our understanding of V. dubia life history traits and will aid integrated weed management strategies in the Intermountain PNW.

Grazing represents a sustainable alternative for the control of medusahead infestations but intake of medusahead by ruminants is typically low. We determined in sheep whether (1) high-energy supplements enhance medusahead intake and preference relative to a treatment without supplementation and (2) individual differences in medusahead intake transfer to individual differences in the ingestion of a silica-containing ration. Groups of lambs (n = 10) were individually penned and randomly assigned to three supplementation treatments: (1) Control (no supplement); (2) Calcium (Ca) Propionate (beet pulp : barley : Ca propionate, 67 : 30 : 3); or (3) Yeast (beet pulp : barley : yeast culture, 65 : 30 : 5). After supplementation, all animals had ad libitum access to medusahead in late vegetative to mid-reproductive (Trial 1), and late-reproductive phenological stages (Trial 2). Medusahead preferences were assessed by offering sheep a choice between medusahead and tall fescue hay. Plant part preferences were assessed by offering a choice between medusahead tops (mostly seedheads and awns) and mid-plant parts (mostly stems + leaves). Intake of medusahead was low and cyclic, declining towards the end of each trial (P < 0.0001) and there were no treatment differences (P > 0.10). Lambs preferred tall fescue hay to medusahead and medusahead tops to mid-plant parts (P < 0.0001). Supplemented lambs gained more weight than control lambs (P < 0.10). Thus, supplemented lambs performed better than nonsupplemented controls without reducing their intake of medusahead. In Trial 3, two new groups of lambs were formed based on their intake of medusahead during Trials 1 and 2 (n = 10). One group consistently ate more medusahead and more of a ration containing silica (alfalfa : silica, 97 : 3) than the other (P < 0.10). A significant and consistent degree of individual variation was measured among lambs—irrespective of treatment—regarding their ability to ingest medusahead and silica. This variation represents a promising option for maximizing use of medusahead by livestock in rangelands.

This paper describes postrelease monitoring of a population of Jaapiella ivannikovi, a gall-forming midge that was introduced for biological control of Russian knapweed. In 2011 to 2013, from late May to early June through August, we monitored 100 permanent plots at one of the first release sites of J. ivannikovi in central Wyoming. Based on the phenology of gall formation, an appropriate window for collection of galls to distribute to new sites is from early to mid-June through early August. Although J. ivannikovi established successfully, 4 yr after release, the percentage of ramets that were galled remained low (1 to 2%), indicating that J. ivannikovi is not yet having a significant effect on Russian knapweed at the site.