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Religion and international humanitarian law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 June 2022

Andrew Bartles-Smith
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Abstract

This article explores the interface between religion and international humanitarian law (IHL), and the degree to which they might complement and reinforce each other. It examines some of the challenges inherent in regulating armed conflict and the understandable limitations of IHL in this respect, and argues that re-engagement with IHL's religious roots can help to alleviate them. Engagement with religious circles mobilizes the vast resources of religions to increase knowledge of IHL and corresponding religious norms, thereby enhancing their legitimacy across religious and cultural divides. This is most effective when comparative study of IHL and religious teachings stimulates mutual learning and debate, in which both correspondences and differences are embraced. In the absence of a strong legal enforcement regime, religions can reinforce military ethics by tapping deeply into the identities, motivations and moral values of many belligerents, and possess powerful means to socialize the rules of war and improve voluntary compliance. Introspective religious practices encourage the moral self-reflection that is most effective at internalizing norms in this respect, as well as providing belligerents with the spiritual and psychological support needed to bolster their resilience and enable them to perform with precision and restraint.

Keywords

IHLICRChumanitarianisminternational lawreligionmoralsmoral psychologymilitary ethicsmilitary trainingwarrior codescompliancearmed groupsclergychaplains
Type
Research Article
Information
International Review of the Red Cross , Volume 104 , Issue 920-921: How International Humanitarian Law Develops , August 2022 , pp. 1725 - 1761
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the ICRC

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Footnotes

*

I would like to thank Bruno Demeyere, the Review's Editor-in-Chief, for encouraging me to write this article, and Dr Noel Maurer Trew and the Review's peer reviewers for their helpful input and comments. I would also like to thank Professor Kate Crosby, Irénée Herbet, Daniel Ratheiser and Lauren Armstrong for reviewing earlier drafts, and Peter Evans for a helpful conversation about military culture.

References

1 US Department of War, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, General Order No. 100, 24 April 1863 (Lieber Code), Art. 15.

2 Henry Dunant, A Memory of Solferino, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Geneva, 1986, p. 116.

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6 International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, Bringing IHL Home: A Road Map for Better National Implementation of International Humanitarian Law, 2019, preambular para. 13, available at: www.icrc.org/en/document/bringing-ihl-home-guidelines-national-implementation-international-humanitarian-law (all internet references were accessed in May 2022).

7 M. Sassòli, above note 3, p. 73.

8 Ibid., p. 52.

9 David Whetham, “The Just War Tradition: A Pragmatic Compromise”, in David Whetham (ed.), Ethics, Law and Military Operations, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2011, p. 85.

10 Karin M. Fierke, “Constructivism”, in Tim Dunne, Milja Kurki and Steve Smith (eds), International Relations Theories, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2013.

11 M. Bryant, above note 5, p. 319; D. Whetham, above note 9, p. 67; David J. Lonsdale, “A View from Realism”, in D. Whetham (ed.), above note 9, p. 39.

12 Ron E. Hassner, Religion on the Battlefield, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 2016, pp. 8, 11.

13 Conrad Hackett and David McClendon, “Christians Remain World's Largest Religious Group, But They Are Declining in Europe”, Pew Research Center, 5 April 2017, available at: www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/.

14 Ibid.

15 Institute for Economics and Peace, Five Key Questions Answered on the Link Between Peace and Religion: A Global Statistical Analysis on the Empirical Link Between Peace and Religion, Sydney, 2015, p. 3, available at: www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Peace-and-Religion-Report.pdf.

16 Even in Europe there are signs that religious visibility is increasing; see Ronald F. Inglehart, Religion's Sudden Decline: What's Causing It, and What Comes Next?, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2020, pp. 1, 78, 81, 82; Ronald F. Inglehart, Jon Miller, Michael Dennis, Stephanie Jwo and Gergely Rosta, “Religion's Sudden Decline, Revisited”, Center for Political Studies Blog, 26 February 2021, available at: https://cps.isr.umich.edu/news/religions-sudden-decline-revisited/; Pew Research Center, The World's Changing Religious Landscape, 5 April 2017, available at: www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/; Hjelm, Titus, “Understanding the New Visibility of Religion”, Journal of Religion in Europe, Vol. 7, No. 3–4, 2014CrossRefGoogle Scholar; C. Hackett and D. McClendon, above note 13.

17 Mark Juergensmeyer, Margo Kitts and Michael Jerryson, “Introduction: The Enduring Relationship of Religion and Violence”, in Mark Juergensmeyer, Margo Kitts and Michael Jerryson (eds), Violence and the World's Religious Traditions, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2017, p. 6 (Kindle ed.).

18 Gladys Ganiel, Heidemarie Winkel and Christophe Monnot, Religion in Times of Crisis, Brill, Leiden, 2014; Dominic Johnson, God Is Watching You: How the Fear of God Makes Us Human, Oxford University Press, New York, 2016, p. 108 (Kindle ed.).

19 D. Johnson, above note 18, p. 107.

20 Lunze, Stefan, “Serving God and Caesar: Religious Personnel and Their Protection in Armed Conflict”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 86, No. 853, 2004, p. 69Google Scholar.

21 R. E. Hassner, above note 12, p. 113.

22 The rain stopped – a modern-day miracle. See R. E. Hassner, above note 12, p. 110.

23 Stephen Mansfield, Faith of the American Soldier, Frontline Publishers, Lake Mary, FL, 2005, pp. 61–62, quoted in R. E. Hassner, above note 12, p. 122.

24 David Whetham, “Ethics, Law and Conflict”, in D. Whetham (ed.), above note 9, p. 10.

25 Nils Melzer, International Humanitarian Law: A Comprehensive Introduction, ICRC, Geneva, 2016, p. 27.

26 M. Bryant, above note 5, p. 88.

27 Ibid.; Jonathan Fox and Shmuel Sandler, Bringing Religion into International Relations, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2004, p. 167

28 David B. Burrell, “Thomas Aquinas and Islam”, Modern Theology, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2004; Khaled Ramadan Bashir, Islamic International Law: Historical Foundations and Al-Shaybani's Siyar, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2018.

29 See, for example, L. R. Penna, “Written and Customary Provisions Relating to the Conduct of Hostilities and Treatment of Victims of Armed Conflicts in Ancient India”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 29, No. 271, 1989; Andrew Bartles-Smith et al., “Reducing Suffering during Conflict: The Interface between Buddhism and International Humanitarian Law”, Contemporary Buddhism, Vol. 21, No. 1–2, 2021; Draper, G. I. A. D., “The Contribution of the Emperor Asoka Maurya to the Development of the Humanitarian Ideal in Warfare”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 35, No. 305, 1995CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 See ICRC, Under the Protection of the Palm: Wars of Dignity in the Pacific, 2009, available at: www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/publication/pwars-of-dignity-pacific.htm; Cédric Cotter, “The Religious Convictions of Henri Dunant, Founder of the ICRC”, Religion and Humanitarian Principles Blog, 11 August 2021, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/religion-humanitarianprinciples/the-religious-convictions-of-henri-dunant-founder-of-the-icrc/.

31 J. Fox and S. Sandler, above note 27, p. 54.

32 Ibid., p. 163.

33 Such apprehension about engaging with religion is not confined to IHL, but is seen in international law more broadly. See, for example, David Kennedy, “Images of Religion in International Legal History”, in Mark W. Janis and Caroline Evans (eds), Religion and International Law, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1999.

34 Provost, René, “The International Committee of the Red Widget? The Diversity Debate and International Humanitarian Law”, Israel Law Review, Vol. 40, No. 2, 2007, p. 39CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 Caserta, Salvatore, “Western Centrism, Contemporary International Law, and International Courts”, Leiden Journal of International Law, Vol. 34, No. 2, 2021CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ikejiaku, Brian-Vincent, “International Law is Western Made Global Law: The Perception of Third-World Category”, African Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. 6, No. 2–3, 2014Google Scholar.

36 Barry A. Kosmin, “The Vitality of Soft Secularism in the United States and the Challenge Posed by the Growth of the Nones”, in Jacques Berlinerblau, Sarah Fainberg and Aurora Nou (eds), Secularism on the Edge: Rethinking Church-State Relations in the United States, France, and Israel, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2014.

37 Ibid.

38 Reut Yael Paz, “Religion, Secularism, and International Law”, in Anne Orford and Florian Hoffmann (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Theory of International Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2016.

39 Alistair Ager and Joey Ager, “Why Humanitarianism Doesn't Get Religion… and Why It Needs To”, in Faith, Secularism, and Humanitarian Engagement: Finding the Place of Religion in the Support of Displaced Communities, Palgrave Pivot, New York, 2015.

40 Donald, Dominick, “Neutral Is Not Impartial: The Confusing Legacy of Traditional Peace Operations Thinking”, Armed Forces & Society, Vol. 29, No. 3, 2003, pp. 416–417Google Scholar.

41 Winnifred Fallers Sullivan and Robert A. Yelle, “Law and Religion: An Overview”, Encyclopedia.com, 2005; W. L. King, “Religion (First Edition)”, in Mircea Eliade (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol. 12, Macmillan, New York, 1987, p. 282.

42 Ibid.

43 Brent Nongbri, Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 2013.

44 French, Rebecca Redwood, “What Is Buddhist Law: Opening Ideas”, Buffalo Law Review, Vol. 63, No. 4, 2015Google Scholar; Damien Keown, Buddhist Ethics: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005 (Kindle ed.).

45 M. Bryant, above note 5.

46 Examples of this work over many years, including groundbreaking articles from the Review, are showcased on the ICRC's Religion and Humanitarian Principles Blog, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/religion-humanitarianprinciples/.

47 Richard Wrangham, The Goodness Paradox: How Evolution Made Us Both More and Less Violent, Profile Books, London, 2019.

48 David Traven, Law and Sentiment in International Politics: Ethics, Emotions, and the Evolution of the Laws of War, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 2021, p. 5.

49 Ibid., pp. 17, 266.

50 Alan Page Fiske and Tage Shakti Rai, Virtuous Violence: Hurting and Killing to Create, Sustain, End, and Honor Social Relationships, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2014.

51 Sam A. Hardy, Amber R. C. Nadal and Seth J. Schwartz, “The Integration of Personal Identity, Religious Identity, and Moral Identity in Emerging Adulthood”, Identity, Vol. 17, No. 2, 2017; Pamela Ebstyne King, “Religion and Identity: The Role of Ideological, Social, and Spiritual Contexts”, in James L. Furrow and Linda M. Wagener (eds), Beyond the Self, Routledge, London, 2019; A. Michael Maclean, Lawrence J. Walker and M. Kyle Matsuba, “Transcendence and the Moral Self: Identity Integration, Religion, and Moral Life”, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 43, No. 3, 2004.

52 Khen, Hilly Moodrick-Even, “Aidōs and Dikē in International Humanitarian Law: Is IHL a Legal or a Moral System?”, The Monist, Vol. 99, No. 1, 2016CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

53 Jus cogens means “compelling law” and describes peremptory norms or fundamental principles of international law from which no derogation is permitted. Ibid.; Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck (eds), Customary International Humanitarian Law, Vol. 1: Rules, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005.

54 H. Moodrick-Even Khen, above note 52, p. 34.

55 N. Melzer, above note 25, pp. 24–25.

56 Rupert Ticehurst, “The Martens Clause and the Laws of Armed Conflict”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 37, No. 317, 1997, available at: www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/article/other/57jnhy.htm.

57 Stephens, Dale, “Behaviour in War: The Place of Law, Moral Inquiry and Self-identity”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 96, No. 895–896, 2014CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

58 H. Moodrick-Even Khen, above note 52, p. 36; Laurent Gisel, The Principle of Proportionality in the Rules Governing the Conduct of Hostilities under International Humanitarian Law, International Expert Meeting, Quebec, 22–23 June 2016, p. 23.

59 N. Melzer, above note 25, p. 9.

60 Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations, 5th ed., Basic Books, New York, 1997, p. 156 (Kindle ed.); see also Ian Henderson and Kate Reece, “Proportionality under International Humanitarian Law: The Reasonable Military Commander Standard and Reverberating Effects”, Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, Vol. 51, No. 3, 2018.

61 M. Walzer, above note 60; see also D. Traven, above note 48, pp. 5–6. Traven argues that IHL needs to be improved to compensate for traits of our moral psychology which assign disproportionately greater moral relevance to intentional as opposed to “unintentional” killing of civilians. Walzer's call for a positive commitment to save civilian lives rather than devaluing them as “collateral damage” is therefore even more important.

62 M. Juergensmeyer, M. Kitts and M. Jerryson, above note 17.

63 Ibid.; Jenni Mitchell, Rethinking Rebel Violence: The Incentives for Victimisation and Restraint in Modern Warfare, Routledge, London, forthcoming.

64 M. Bryant, above note 5, p. 305.

65 Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1989, p. 331; Samuel P. Huntingdon, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1996.

66 See, for example, Geneva Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 287 (entered into force 21 October 1950), Art. 27.

67 Jonathan Haidt, The Righteous Mind: Why Good People are Divided by Politics and Religion, Vintage Books, New York, 2012, p. 312.

68 Institute for Economics and Peace, above note 15. For a very brief insight into how gender issues can be a causal factor in conflict, see Jenny Birchall, “Gender as a Causal Factor in Conflict”, K4D, 28 February 2019, available at: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/549_Gender_as_A_Causal_Factor_in_Conflict.pdf

69 R. E. Hassner, above note 12, p. 4.

70 Mashood A. Baderin, “Religion and International Law: Friends or Foes?”, SOAS School of Law Research Paper Series No.4, 2010, p. 649.

71 R. E. Hassner, above note 12.

72 Katherine Davies, Continuity, Change and Contest: Meanings of ‘Humanitarian’ from the ‘Religion of Humanity’ to the Kosovo War, Humanitarian Policy Group Working Paper, August 2012.

73 The Order of Malta, for example, has been engaged in humanitarian relief for over 900 years. See: www.orderofmalta.int/sovereign-order-of-malta/.

74 See, for example, ICRC, Regional Conference on Humanitarian Access and Negotiation in Asia, 2018, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/religion-humanitarianprinciples/asia-regional-conference-on-humanitarian-negotiation-and-access/; Nicholas Onuf, “Humanitarian Intervention: The Early Years”, Florida Journal of International Law, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2004; Slim, Hugo, “Claiming a Humanitarian Imperative: NGOs and the Cultivation of Humanitarian Duty”, Refugee Survey Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 3, 2002CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

75 D. Johnson, above note 18, pp. 98–137.

76 R. Wrangham, above note 47; D. Johnson, above note 18, p. 170.

77 A. P. Fiske and T. S. Rai, above note 50, pp. 13, 18.

78 Pascal Boyer, Minds Makes Societies, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 2018, loc. 673, 696 (Kindle ed.).

79 Mike Martin, Why We Fight, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2018, p. 1.

80 Kaldor, Mary, “In Defence of New Wars”, Stability: International Journal of Security and Development, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2013CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

81 A. P. Fiske and T. S. Rai, above note 50, p. 208.

82 Ibid.

83 Ibid., p. 210

84 Ibid., pp. i, 95–96; Richard Ned Lebow, Why Nations Fight: Past and Future Motives for War, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2010.

85 D. Johnson, above note 18.

86 Smith, Anthony, “Ethnic Election and National Destiny: Some Religious Origins of Nationalist Ideals”, Nations and Nationalism, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1999CrossRefGoogle Scholar; J. Haidt, above note 67.

87 J. Fox and S. Sandler, above note 27, p. 57.

88 J. Haidt, above note 67, p. 314

89 The common sentience of Buddhism, for example. See A. Bartles-Smith et al., above note 29.

90 Ron Mallon and Shaun S. Nichols, “Rules”, in John M. Doris et al., The Moral Psychology Handbook, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2010, pp. 297–298.

91 Ibid., p. 299; J. Haidt, above note 67, p. 367.

92 R. Mallon and S. S. Nichols, above note 90, p. 318.

93 Ibid., p. 301.

94 Ibid.

95 Elizabeth A. Stanley, “Cultivating the Mind of a Warrior”, Inquiring Mind, Vol. 30, No. 2, 2014, available at: www.inquiringmind.com/article/3001_16_stanley-cultivating-the-mind-of-a-warrior/.

96 R. Mallon and S. S. Nichols, above note 90.

97 Michael Sevel and Brian Leiter “Legal Positivism”, Oxford Bibliographies, 10 May 2010, available at: https://tinyurl.com/vexmhvw3; Christopher P. M. Waters, “War Law and Its Intersections”, in D. Whetham (ed.), above note 9, p. 90.

98 M. Bryant, above note 5, pp. 48, 256; Elizabeth Heger Boyle and John W. Meyer, “Modern Law as a Secularized and Global Model: Implications for the Sociology of Law”, Soziale Welt, Vol. 49, No. 3, 1998, p. 214.

99 D. Johnson, above note 18, p. 188.

100 E. H. Boyle and J. W. Meyer, above note 98.

101 Ibid., pp. 214, 216.

102 Ibid.

103 Ibid., p. 215.

104 D. Johnson, above note 18, p. 178.

105 John A. Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration and Other Writings, Liberty Fund, 2010, pp. 52–53, available at: https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/goldie-a-letter-concerning-toleration-and-other-writings.

106 The duty to honour treaties is enshrined, for example, in Islamic law, and is an important factor in the endorsement of IHL by some Muslim non-State armed groups.

107 Stephen C. Neff, War and the Law of Nations: A General History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, p. 29.

108 M. Bryant, above note 5, p. 47.

109 H. Moodrick-Even Khen, above note 52: S. C. Neff, above note 107, p. 85; Cicero, Part. Or. 37.130.

110 M. Sassòli, above note 3, p. 56.

111 D. J. Lonsdale, above note 11, p. 32.

112 For examples of this, see the ICRC's IHL in Action website, available at: https://ihl-in-action.icrc.org/.

113 M. Sassòli, above note 3, p. 63.

114 Ibid.

115 N. Melzer, above note 25, p. 53.

116 M. Sassòli, above note 3, p. 48.

117 Ibid.

118 Ibid., pp. 49–50; N. Melzer, above note 25, pp. 24–25.

119 However, if there is State practice and opinio juris which contradicts “the legacy of religious and just war principles”, the relevant customary norm is what the former say, rather than the latter. States are still in the driver's seat. Customary law is not a tool for non-State entities to legislate without State consent.

120 Michael Newman, Transitional Justice: Contending with the Past, Polity Press, Cambridge, 2019 (Kindle ed.).

121 Ibid.

122 Ioana Cismas and Ezequiel Heffes, “Not the Usual Suspects: Religious Leaders as Influencers of International Humanitarian Law Compliance”, Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law, Vol. 22, 2019.

123 This is often expressed by signing Geneva Call's Deeds of Commitment, for example.

124 See, for example, Munir, Muhammad, “The Layha for the Mujahideen: An Analysis of the Code of Conduct for the Taliban Fighters under Islamic Law”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 93, No. 881, 2011CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

125 D. Johnson, above note 18; M. Sassòli, above note 3.

126 Fiona Terry and Brian McQuinn, The Roots of Restraint in War, ICRC, Geneva, 2018; see also Kaplan, Oliver, “Nudging Armed Groups: How Civilians Transmit Norms of Protection”, Stability: International Journal of Security and Development, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2013Google Scholar.

127 See the ICRC's Religion and Humanitarian Principles Blog, above note 46.

128 D. Johnson, above note 18.

129 Ibid.

130 See the ICRC's Religion and Humanitarian Principles Blog, above note 46.

131 Harold Hongju Koh, “Internalization through Socialization”, Duke Law Journal, Vol. 54, No. 4, 2005.

132 Margaret Levi, Audrey Sacks and Tom Tyler, “Conceptualizing Legitimacy, Measuring Legitimating Beliefs”, American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 53, No. 3, 2009.

133 Ted van Baarda, “The Ethical Challenges of a Complex Security Environment”, in D. Whetham (ed.), above note 9, p. 164.

134 R. E. Hassner, above note 12.

135 D. Whetham, above note 9, p. 71.

136 Ibid., p. 72.

137 Ibid.

138 For example, cetanā in Buddhism and niyyah in Islam.

139 T. van Baarda, above note 133, p. 166.

140 C. P. M. Waters, above note 97, p. 91; Martin L. Cook and Henrik Syse, “What Should We Mean by ‘Military Ethics’?”, Journal of Military Ethics, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2010, p. 120.

141 Gwilym Williams, “Seeing Through the Fog of War: The Need for Professional Military Ethics Education”, Strife, 24 September 2015.

142 Jessica Wolfendale, “What Is the Point of Teaching Ethics in the Military?”, in Paul Robinson, Nigel De Lee and Don Carrick (eds), Ethics Education in the Military, Ashgate, Abingdon, 2008.

143 M. L. Cook and H. Syse, above note 140; J. Wolfendale, above note 142, p. 162.

144 J. Wolfendale, above note 142.

145 Ibid., p. 164; M. L. Cook and H. Syse, above note 140. The Values of the British Army are courage, discipline, respect for others, integrity, loyalty and selfless commitment. Its Standards are lawfulness, acceptable behaviour and professionalism. See British Army, “A Soldier's Values and Standards”, available at: www.army.mod.uk/who-we-are/our-people/a-soldiers-values-and-standards/.

146 J. Wolfendale, above note 142.

147 See, for example, the military ethics playing cards and mobile phone application developed by King's College London, available at: https://militaryethics.uk/en/playing-cards/military; G. Williams, above note 141.

148 T. van Baarda, above note 133, p. 163.

149 Peter A. Lorge, Chinese Martial Arts: From Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2011.

150 Shannon E. French, The Code of the Warrior: Exploring Warrior Values Past and Present, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD, 2017.

151 Peter Olsthoorn, “Military Virtues and Moral Relativism”, in Michael Skerker, David Whetham and Don Carrick (eds), Military Virtues, Howgate Publishing, Havant, 2019, p. 45 (Kindle ed.).

152 Martin L. Cook, “Military Virtues”, in M. Skerker, D. Whetham and D. Carrick (eds), above note 151, p. 2.

153 A. Bartles-Smith et al., above note 29; Peter. A. Lorge, Chinese Martial Arts: From Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012.

154 Ibid.

155 Anna Harwood, Michal Lavidor and Yuri Rassovsky “Reducing Aggression with Martial Arts: A Meta-Analysis of Child and Youth Studies”, Aggression and Violent Behavior, Vol. 34, 2017.

156 Christopher J. Eberle and Rick Rubel, “Religious Conviction in the Profession of Arms”, Journal of Military Ethics, Vol. 11, No. 3, 2012.

157 For example, the Bangsamoro Islamic Armed Forces, the armed wing of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front in the Philippines, has an Islamic Call and Guidance department which oversees religious leaders in its ranks in order to provide Islamic guidance to all of its commands. See United Nations and Moro Islamic Liberation Front, Children in Armed Conflict: Philippines: Action Plan on the Recruitment and Use of Children in Armed Conflict, 2017, pp. 3–4.

158 M. L. Cook and H. Syse, above note 140, p. 121.

159 Herbert Raymond McMaster, “Preserving the Warrior Ethos”, Hudson Institute, 1 November 2021, available at: www.hudson.org/research/17361-preserving-the-warrior-ethos.

160 Ibid.

161 US Army, “Warrior Ethos”, available at: www.army.mil/values/warrior.html. This website also includes pages on the US Army's Values and the creeds, songs and oaths of its various services.

162 Such is the case even in some secular countries; in the US and British militaries, for example. See US Army, “Oath of Enlistment”, available at: www.army.mil/values/oath.html; British Army, “Oath of Allegiance – Christian Version”, available at: https://tinyurl.com/ytp2bjrs.

163 See, for example, “Hell Week”, Navyseals.com, available at: https://navyseals.com/nsw/hell-week-0/.

164 Scott A Fischer, Army and Air Force Subcultures Effects on Joint Operations. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania, PA, 2006.

165 Jonathan S. Landay, “Hazing Rituals in Military Are Common – and Abusive”, Christian Science Monitor, 11 February 1997, available at: www.csmonitor.com/1997/0211/021197.us.us.4.html; Kirsten M. Keller et al., Hazing in the US Armed Forces: Recommendations for Hazing Prevention Policy and Practice, RAND Corporation, 2015.

166 I use the US military as an example because its rules and values are so transparent and accessible. See US Army, “The Army Values”, available at: www.army.mil/values/index.html. See also Association of the United States Army, “The Code of Conduct”, available at: www.ausa.org/code-conduct; Mick Howard, “A Military Tradition Institutionalized: Rhetorical Personification and Anthropomorphism in ‘The Rifleman's Creed’”, Journal of Military Experience, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2013, pp. 121–122.

167 M. Howard, above note 166; see also “The Rifleman's Creed”, YouTube, available at: www.youtube.com/watch?v=M11XkE6KBro.

168 “Setting the Tone for Each Service: Learning the Military Creeds”, Military.com, available at: www.military.com/join-armed-forces/military-creeds.html.

169 See the US Army, above note 166. For the US Army Soldier's Code, see: www.uvu.edu/rotc/resources/soldiers-creed.html.

170 Chris Jenks, “The Efficacy of the U.S. Army's Law of War Training Program”, Articles of War, 14 October 2020, available at: https://lieber.westpoint.edu/efficacy-u-s-armys-law-of-war-training-program/. Note that the “Soldier's Rules” are less visible than the US Army Values and various creeds on the Internet. Interestingly, the US Military's Code of Conduct invokes IHL provisions (specifically Article 17 of Geneva Convention III) for the benefit of US military personnel should they become prisoners of war, but not necessarily for anyone else: “Should I become a prisoner of war, I am required to give name, rank, service number, and date of birth. I will evade answering further questions to the utmost of my ability. I will make no oral or written statements disloyal to my country and its allies.” See Association of the United States Army, above note 166.

171 Ibid. See also above note 166.

172 Felicia Ackerman French, “Never to Do Outrageousity nor Murder…”: The Code of the Warrior in the World of Malory's Morte d'Arthur”, in S. E. French, above note 150, p. 120.

173 Malory was himself a warrior, but he wrote Le Morte d'Arthur in prison and was hardly a model of good behaviour. Indeed, according to Shippey, he must be “the least politically correct author still commonly read”. Malory was himself charged with rape, though the details of the case are unclear. See Batt, Catherine, “Malory and Rape”, Arthuriana, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1997, p. 79CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

174 Contemporary warrior codes should also be vetted so as not to perpetuate unhelpful gender stereotypes. Women, Peace, and Security and feminist scholars have also critiqued aspects of IHL in this respect. See, for example, Orly Maya Stern, Gender, Conflict and International Humanitarian Law: A Critique of the “Principle of Distinction”, 1st ed., Routledge, Abingdon, 2018.

175 R. E. Hassner, above note 12.

176 Walter A. Dorn and Richard Rose, “Hindu References in the Indian Military: Weapons, War Cries and Insignia (Tables for Primary and Preliminary Research)”, unpublished draft for ICRC, 1 December 2021.

177 Shaun Walker, “Angels and Artillery: A Cathedral to Russia's New National Identity”, The Guardian, 20 October 2020, available at: www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/20/orthodox-cathedral-of-the-armed-force-russian-national-identity-military-disneyland.

178 S. E. French, above note 150, p. 19.

179 Bruno Waterfield, “War Criminals Are Heroes in Balkans, Says UN Prosecutor”, The Times, 6 June 2021, available at: www.thetimes.co.uk/article/war-criminals-are-treated-as-heroes-by-genocide-deniers-in-the-balkans-zkd5sjdpz.

180 S. E. French, above note 150, p. 254.

181 H. R. McMaster, above note 159.

182 Ryan Noordally, “On the Toxicity of the ‘Warrior’ Ethos”, Wavell Room, 28 April 2020, available at: https://wavellroom.com/2020/04/28/on-the-toxicity-of-the-warrior-ethos/; Holleufer, Gilbert, “Heroic Memory and Contemporary War”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 101, No. 910, 2019Google Scholar.

183 Christopher Hamner, “Why Do Soldiers Fight?”, Historically Speaking, Vol. 13, No. 1, 2012; H. R. McMaster, above note 159.

184 The Inspector-General of the Australian Defence Force Afghanistan Inquiry Report into unlawful conduct by Australian Special Forces in Afghanistan graphically illustrates these dynamics, and the dangers of units operating in an environment detached from proper military oversight and societal norms. Part 3 (p. 325 onwards) on “Strategic, Operational, Organisational and Cultural Issues” is particularly relevant. See Inspector-General of the Australian Defence Force Afghanistan Inquiry Report, 2020 (Brereton Report), available at: https://afghanistaninquiry.defence.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-11/IGADF-Afghanistan-Inquiry-Public-Release-Version.pdf.

185 Such was the case in the German and Imperial Japanese Armies during World War II. The brutality of the Russian military in Syria and Ukraine has also been partly attributed to the prevalence of dedovshchina, or hazing, in its ranks. See Bret Devereaux, “What Makes Armies Commit Atrocities?”, Foreign Policy, 6 April 2022, available at: https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/04/06/russia-ukraine-atrocities-war-crimes/; “Russia Leaves a Trail of Atrocities in Ukraine”, Financial Times, 5 April 2022, available at: https://tinyurl.com/4fmh97py.

186 S. E. French, above note 150, pp. 8, 12.

187 Emanuele Castano, Bernhard Leidner and Patrycja Slawuta, “Social Identification Processes, Group Dynamics and the Behaviour of Combatants”, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 90, No. 870, 2008.

188 Ibid.

189 Shannon E. French and Anthony I. Jack, “Dehumanizing the Enemy: The Intersection of Neuroethics and Bioethics”, in David Whetham and Bradley J. Strawser (eds), Responsibilities to Protect: Perspectives in Theory and Practice, Brill Nijhoff, Leiden, 2015. See also the Brereton Report, above note 184.

190 F. Terry and B. McQuinn, above note 126.

191 O. Kaplan, above note 126.

192 F. Terry and B. McQuinn, above note 126.

193 R. E. Hassner's Religion on the Battlefield, above note 12, contains numerous examples from modern wars.

194 Ibid., p. 108.

195 H. Dunant, above note 2, p. 31.

196 R. E. Hassner, above note 12, pp. 87–88, 94, 98.

197 Ibid., p. 98.

198 See this address by Pope Francis to military chaplains: “Audience with the Participants in the Fifth International Course of Formation of Catholic Military Chaplains on International Humanitarian Law”, Holy See Press Office, 2019, available at: https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2019/10/31/191031a.html.

199 T. van Baarda, above note 33, pp. 156–157.

200 Ibid.

201 David Livingstone Smith, Less Than Human: Why We Demean, Enslave, and Exterminate Others, St Martin's Press, New York, 2011; S. E. French and A. I. Jack, above note 189; Dave Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society, Open Road Media, New York, 2014.

202 Sheila Frankfurt and Patricia Frazier “A Review of Research on Moral Injury in Combat Veterans”, Military Psychology, Vol. 28, No. 5, 2016; Hannah C. Hamrick, Michelle L. Kelley and Adrian J. Bravo, “Morally Injurious Events, Moral Injury, and Suicidality among Recent-Era Veterans: The Moderating Effects of Rumination and Mindfulness”, Military Behavioral Health, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2020, p. 109.

203 S. E. French, above note 150, pp. 6–7.

204 Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character, Simon & Schuster, New York, 2010, p. 115.

205 R. E. Hassner, above note 12, p. 125.

206 Ibid., p. 119.

207 Claire Braboszcz, Stéphanie Hahusseau and Arnaud Delorme, “Meditation and Neuroscience: From Basic Research to Clinical Practice”, in Roland A. Carstedt (ed.), Integrative Clinical Psychology, Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine: Perspectives, Practices and Research, Springer, New York, 2010; Amishi P. Jha et al., “Minds ‘at Attention’: Mindfulness Training Curbs Attentional Lapses in Military Cohorts”, PloS One, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2015.

208 R. E. Hassner, above note 12, p. 124.

209 Ibid., p. 125.

210 O. Kaplan, above note 126.

211 ICRC, People on War: Perspectives From 16 Countries, Geneva, 2016, available at: www.icrc.org/en/document/people-on-war

212 Ibid.

213 Kulatissa Nanda Jayatilleke, “The Principles of International Law in Buddhist Doctrine”, Académie de Droit International: Recueil des cours, Vol. 120, 1967.

214 This is borne out by long ICRC experience in the field, and the frequent role of religious leaders as mediators.

215 Traven, David, “Moral Cognition and the Law and Ethics of Armed Conflict”, International Studies Review, Vol. 17, No. 4, 2015Google Scholar.

216 Ibid.

217 See, for example, ICRC, above note 74; ICRC, “Sri Lanka, Global Conference on the Interface between Buddhism and IHL”, 13 September 2019, available at: www.icrc.org/en/document/sri-lanka-global-conference-interface-between-buddhism-and-ihl.

218 See, for example, A. Bartles-Smith et al., above note 29.

219 See, for example, this interview with religious scholars who have worked with the ICRC: ICRC, “Swiss Radio Broadcast: ‘Le CICR à l’écoute des religions’”, Religion and Humanitarian Principles Blog, 17 May 2021, available at: https://blogs.icrc.org/religion-humanitarianprinciples/french-swiss-radio-broadcast-le-cicr-a-l-ecoute-des-religions/.

220 See, for example, Spickard, James V., “Human Rights, Religious Conflict, and Globalisation: Ultimate Values in a New World Order”, International Journal on Multicultural Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1999Google Scholar; William A Stahl, “Religious Opposition to Globalization”, in Peter Beyer and Lori G. Beaman (eds), Religion, Globalization, and Culture, Brill, Leiden, 2007.

221 This is a frequent concern of many religious scholars and others with whom the ICRC engages.

222 Helen M. Kinsella and Giovanni Mantilla, “Contestation before Compliance: History, Politics, and Power in International Humanitarian Law”, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 64, No. 3, 2020.

223 I. Cismas and E. Heffes, above note 122.

224 ICRC engagement with religious circles has been characterized by the remarkable energy and enthusiasm with which religious circles have engaged. With regard to acceptance of basic IHL norms, the so-called Islamic State group has so far been a notable exception in rejecting them.

225 A. Bartles-Smith et al., above note 29, p. 4.