Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T16:14:45.326Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Entrepreneurs of hate and entrepreneurs of solidarity: Social identity as a basis for mass communication

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 December 2005

Abstract

The authors draw upon the principles of the social identity tradition in order to elaborate a psychological model of mass communication. This centres on the way in which people construe their social identities and the meanings of events for these identities. They then go on to look at the ways in which these principles have been employed both to mobilize collective support for genocide and collective resistance to genocide. They conclude that it is critical to understand these principles and to apply them effectively in order to promote social harmony and the defence of vulnerable groups.

Type
Communication
Copyright
Copyright © International Committee of the Red Cross 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Gustave Le Bon, Psychologie des foules, 1895; translated into English: The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind, 1897.

2 Moscovici, Serge, L'age des foules, Fayard, Paris, 1981Google Scholar; Nye, R., The Origins of Crowd Psychology, Sage, New York, 1975Google Scholar.

3 See Reicher, Stephen, Spears, Russell, & Postmes, Tom, “A social identity model of deindividuation phenomena,” European Review of Social Psychology, Vol. 6, 1995, pp. 161198CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 Moscovici, Serge, Social Influence and Social Change, Academic Press, London, 1976Google Scholar.

5 Moscovici, Serge, “Social influence and conformity,” in Lindzey, G. & Aronson, E. (eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology, 3rd edition, Vol. 2, Random House, New York, 1985, pp. 347412Google Scholar.

6 See as an example Allport, Floyd, Social Psychology, Houghton Mifflin, Boston MA., 1924Google Scholar.

7 For a more detailed development of this point see Reicher, Stephen, “Crowd behaviour as social action,” in Turner, J., Hogg, M., Oakes, P., Reicher, S.D. & Wetherell, M., Rediscovering the Social Group, Blackwell, Oxford, 1987Google Scholar.

8 Tajfel, Henri & Turner, John, “An integrative theory of intergroup conflict,” in Austin, W. G. & Worchel, S. (eds.), The Social Psychology ofIntergroup Relations, Brooks/Cole, Monterey, CA, 1979, pp. 3347Google Scholar.

9 Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher & Wetherell, op. cit. (note 7).

10 Turner, John, “Towards a cognitive redefinition of the social group,” in Tajfel, H. (ed.), Social Identity and Intergroup Relations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1982, pp. 1540Google Scholar; Stephen Reicher & Alex Haslam, (in press) “Rethinking the psychology of tyranny: The BBC Prison Study,” British Journal ofSocial Psychology.

11 For reviews, see Ellemers, Naomi, Spears, Russell & Doojse, Bertjan, “Self and social identity,” Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 53, 2002, pp. 161186CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Haslam, Alex, Psychology in Organizations, Sage, London, 2001Google Scholar; for an elaboration of principles see Turner, John, “Some current issues in research on social identity and self-categorization theories,” in Ellemers, N., Spears, R. & Doosje, B. (eds.), Social Identity: Context, Commitment, Content, Blackwell, Oxford, 1999, pp. 634Google Scholar; Reicher, Stephen, “The context of social psychology: Domination, resistance and change,” Political Psychology, Vol. 25, 2004, pp. 4062CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Tyler, Tom R. & Blader, Stephen L., Cooperation in Groups: Procedural Justice, Social Identity, and Behavioral Engagement, Psychology Press, Philadelphia, PA, 2000Google Scholar.

13 Levine, Mark, Cassidy, Clare, Brazier, Gemma & Reicher, Stephen, “Self-categorisation and bystander nonintervention: Two experimental studies,” Journal ofApplied Social Psychology, Vol. 7, 2002, pp. 14521463CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Levine, Mark, Prosser, Amy, Evans, David & Reicher, Stephen, “Identity and emergency intervention: How social group membership and inclusiveness of group boundaries shapes helping behaviour,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 31, 2005, pp. 443453CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Reicher, Stephen, Cassidy, Clare, Hopkins, Nick & Levine, Mark, “Saving Bulgaria's Jews: An analysis of social identity and the mobilisation of social solidarity,” European Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 36, 2006, pp. 4972CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 Haslam, op. cit. (note 11); Reicher & Haslam, op. cit. (note 10).

15 Reicher, Stephen, Haslam, Alex & Hopkins, Nick, “Social identity and the dynamics of leadership: Leaders and followers as collaborative agents in the transformation of social reality,” Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 16, 2005, pp. 547568CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 Turner, John, “Examining the nature of power: A three-process theory,” European Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 35, 2005, pp. 122CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Turner, op. cit. (note 10); Turner, John, Social Influence, Open University Press, Milton Keynes, 1991Google Scholar.

18 Tajfel, Henri, Differentiation between Social Groups, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1978Google Scholar.

19 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, From Empire to Nation, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 1960CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities, Verso, London, 1983Google Scholar.

21 For more details see Reicher, Stephen & Hopkins, Nick, Selfand Nation, Sage, London, 2001Google Scholar.

22 Oakes, Penny, Haslam, Alex & Turner, John, Stereotyping and Social Reality, Sage, London, 1994Google Scholar; Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher & Wetherell, op. cit. (note 7).

23 Reicher, Haslam & Hopkins, op. cit. (note 15), pp. 547-568; Reicher, Stephen & Hopkins, Nick, “Constructing categories and mobilising masses: An analysis of Thatcher's and Kinnock's speeches on the British miner's strike 1984-5,” European Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 26, 1996, pp. 3533713.0.CO;2-O>CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Reicher, Stephen & Hopkins, Nick, “Seeking influence through characterising self-categories: An analysis of anti-abortionist rhetoric,” British Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 35, 1996, pp. 297312CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Reicher, Stephen, & Hopkins, Nick, Selfand Nation, Sage, London, 2001Google Scholar; Reicher, Stephen & Hopkins, Nick, “On the science of the art of leadership,” in Knippenberg, D. van & Hogg, M. (eds.), Identity, Leadership and Power, Blackwell, Oxford 2003Google Scholar.

24 See Reicher & Hopkins, Selfand Nation, op. cit. (note 23).

25 Wilner, Ann Ruth, The Spellbinders: Charismatic Political Leadership, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1984CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26 Reicher, Stephen, “The context of social psychology: Domination, resistance and change,” Political Psychology, Vol. 25, 2004, pp. 4062CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27 Stott, Clifford, Hutchison, Paul & Drury, John, “‘Hooligans’ abroad? Inter-group dynamics, social identity and participation in collective ‘disorder’ at the 1998 World Cup Finals,” British Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 40, 2001, pp. 359384CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stott, Clifford, & Reicher, Stephen, “How conflict escalates: The inter-group dynamics of collective football crowd ‘violence’,” Sociology, Vol. 32, 1998, pp. 353377CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 Koonz, Claudia, The Nazi Conscience, Belknapp Press, Cambridge MA., 2003, p. 221Google Scholar.

29 Mann, Michael, “The dark side of democracy,” Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004CrossRefGoogle Scholar

30 See as examples Gulseth, Hege Lovdal, “The use of propaganda in the Rwandan genocide,” unpublished thesis, University of Oslo, 2004Google Scholar; Welch, D., The Third Reich: Politics and Propaganda, Routledge, London, 1993Google Scholar.

31 Koonz, op. cit., (note 28), p. 17.

32 Ibid., p. 21.

33 Ibid., p. 23.

34 Ibid., p. 228.

35 Milli Gazette (2006): “We (Hindus and Muslims) are ethnically and culturally the same,” available at: <http://www.milligazette.com/Archives/15102002/1510200233.htm>, (last visited on 19 January 2006).

36 Marques, Jose M. & Paez, Dario, “The ‘black sheep effect’: Social categorisation, rejection of ingroup deviates and perception of group variability,” European Review of Social Psychology, Vol. 6, 1994, pp. 3768CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

37 Koonz, op. cit. (note 28), p. 274.

38 Levine, Prosser, Evans & Reicher, “Identity and emergency intervention: How social group membership and inclusiveness of group boundaries shapes helping behaviour,” op. cit. (note 13), pp. 443-453.

39 Levine, Mark & Thompson, Karen, “Identity, place, and bystander intervention: Social categories and helping after natural disasters,” Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 144, 2004, pp. 229245CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

40 Monroe, Kristen R., “Altruism and the theory of rational action: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe,” Ethics, Vol. 101, 1990, pp. 117118CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Monroe, Kristen R., “The psychology of genocide: A review of the literature,” Ethics and International Affairs, Vol. 9, 1995, pp. 215239CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Oliner, Samuel P. & Oliner, Pearl M., The Altruistic Personality: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe, Free Press, New York, 1992Google Scholar.

41 Ben-Yakov, Abram, “Bulgaria,” in Gutman, I. (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, (2 Vols.), MacMillan, New York, 1990Google Scholar; Cohen, A. & Assa, A., Saving the Jews in Bulgaria: 1941-1944, State Publishing House “Septemvri,” Sofia, 1997Google Scholar; Genov, R. & Baeva, I., “‘Incomprehension of the nature of the race question’: Saving the Bulgarian Jews from the Holocaust,” in Halfdanarson, G. (ed.), Racial Discrimination and Ethnicity in European History, Edizioni Plus, Pisa University Press, Pisa, 2003Google Scholar.

42 Todorov, Tzvetan, The Fragility of Goodness, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 2001Google Scholar.

43 Reicher, Cassidy, Hopkins, & Levine, “Saving Bulgaria's Jews: An analysis of social identity and the mobilisation of social solidarity,” op. cit. (note 13), pp. 49-72.

44 Reicher, Stephen, “The crowd century: Reconciling theoretical failure with practical success,” British Journal of Social Psychology. Vol 35, 1996, pp. 535553CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45 See Reicher & Hopkins, “On the science of the art of leadership,” op cit. (note 23).