Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T20:29:46.808Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

International humanitarian law and the protection of the environment in time of armed conflict

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 January 2010

Philippe Antoine
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

The condition of our planet today is, to say the least, a cause for great concern. As recently stated by Ms. Gro Harlem Brundtland, Prime Minister of Norway and Chairman of the World Commission on Environment and Development: “We are living in an historic transitional period in which awareness of the conflict between human activities and environmental constraints is literally exploding”. A decisive battle is now under way to preserve a truly endangered planet from the threat of extinction.

Type
Protection of the Environment in Time of Armed Conflict
Information
International Review of the Red Cross (1961 - 1997) , Volume 32 , Issue 291 , December 1992 , pp. 517 - 537
Copyright
Copyright © International Committee of the Red Cross 1992

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Brundtland, G.H., “Environment: a decisive battle”, Forum, Council of Europe, 2/89, p. 16.Google Scholar

2 Bothe, M., Cassese, A., Kalshoven, F., Kiss, A., Salmon, J., Simmonds, K., La protection de l'environnement en temps de conflit armé, Commission of European Communities, Int. Doc, SJ/110/85, p. 17 Google Scholar; Kiss, A., Shelton, D., International Environmental Law, Transnational Publishers, Graham and Trotman, New York, London, 1991;Google Scholar

— Court decisions and arbitral awards:

Sentence of Max Huber of 4 April 1928 in the Palmas Island case, in Recueil des sentences arbitrates (Report of international arbitral awards), vol. II, p. 831 Google Scholar; arbitral decision of 11 March 1941 in the Trail Foundry case, ibid., vol. III, p. 1906; judgment of 9 April 1949 in the Corfu Channel case, International Court of Justice (ICJ), in Reports of judgments, 1949, Sijthoff, Leyden, p. 22.Google Scholar

— International conventions:

Art. 194 (2) of the Convention on the Law of the Sea (Montego Bay, 10 December 1982), in International Legal Material (ILM), vol. XXI, 1982–II, p. 1308 Google Scholar; Preamble to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (Geneva, 13 November 1979), in ILM, vol. XVIII, 1979–1981, p. 1442 Google Scholar; Art. 1 of the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London, 29 December 1972), in Kiss, A., ed., Selected Multilateral Treaties in the Field of the Environment, Nairobi, UNEP, 1983, p. 283.Google Scholar

— Regional conventions:

Art. 3 of the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltie Sea Area (Helsinki, 22 March 1974), in Kiss, A., Selected Multilateral Treaties …. op.cit., p. 405 Google Scholar; Art. 4 of the Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (Barcelona. 16 February 1976), ibid., p. 448; Art. 3 (a) of the Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution (Kuwait, 24 April 1978), ibid., p. 486.

3 UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 5–16 June 1972), in Revue générate de droit international public, 1973, pp. 354 ff.Google Scholar

4 Administrative Tribunal of Strasbourg, North Holland Province v. State Ministry of the Environment, 27 July 1983, Revue juridique de l'environnement, 1983, p. 343 Google Scholar; District Court of Rotterdam, Handelswerkerij Bier, G.T. et al. v. Mines de Potasse d'Alsace, 16 12 1983 Google Scholar, in Bothe, M. et al. , op. cit., p. 24.Google Scholar

5 Bothe, M. et al. , op.cit., p. 25.Google Scholar

6 — International treaties and conventions:

Art. 2 of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (Geneva, 13 November 1979), in Kiss, A., Selected Multilateral Treaties…, op.cit., p. 519 Google Scholar; Art. IX of the Treaty on Outer Space (27 January 1967), International Legal Material (ILM), vol. VI, 1967, p. 388 Google Scholar; Art. 4 of the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO, Paris, 23 November 1972), in Kiss, A., Selected Multilateral Treaties …, op.cit., p. 276 Google Scholar; Preamble of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn, 23 June 1979), ibid., p. 500; Art. VII of the Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (5 December 1979), ILM, vol. XVIII, 1979–11, p. 1436 Google Scholar; Art. 145 of the Convention on the Law of the Sea (Montego Bay, 10 December 1982) concerning the “zone”, ILM, vol. XXI, 1982–11, p. 1294.Google Scholar

— Non-treaty texts:

Principles 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 of the Declaration of the UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 5–16 June 1972), Revue générate de droit international public, p. 352 ff.Google Scholar

7 Kiss, A., “Un aspect du droit de vivre: le droit à l'environnement”, in Essays on the concept of a “right to live” (in memory of Yougindra Khushalani), Bruyland, Brussels, 1988, p. 66.Google Scholar

8 Revue juridique de l'environnement, 1978, p. 423.Google Scholar

9 Bretton, P., “Le problème des ‘méthodes et moyens de guerre ou de combat’ dans les Protocoles additionnels aux Conventions de Genève du 12 août 1949”, Revue générate de droit international public, vol. 82, 1978, p. 34 Google Scholar; Sandoz, Y., “Unlawful damage in armed conflicts and redress under international humanitarian law”, IRRC, No. 228, 05–06 1982, p. 144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

10 World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (Brundtland Report), Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York, 1987, p. 291.Google Scholar

11 Ibidem.

12 Report on the Work of the Conference of Government Experts on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts, second session, ICRC, Geneva, 1972, CE/COM III/C5, vol. II (Annexes), p. 52.Google Scholar

13 22nd International Conference of the Red Cross (Tehran, 1973), Commission on International Humanitarian Law, Doc. P/7/b, p. 8.

14 According to Bretton, P., op.cit., p. 59 Google Scholar, this was not unrelated to the problem of French nuclear testing which was taking place at the time in the Pacific.

15 Official Records of the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts, Geneva (1974–1977), Federal Political Department, Bern, 1978, CDDH/III/60, vol. III, p. 220.Google Scholar

16 ibid., CDDH/III/SR 13–40 of 15 December 1975, no. 10.

17 Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977. to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, Sandoz, Y., Swinarski, C., Zimmermann, B., eds., ICRC, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Geneva, 1987, pp. 414–415 Google Scholar, paras. 1450–1451, and pp. 416–417, para. 1454.

18 Arrassen, M., Conduite des hostilites — droit des conflits armés et désarmement (1983 thesis), Bruylant, Brussels, 1986, p. 297 Google Scholar; Commentary on the Additional Protocols, op.cit., p. 417, note 117.Google Scholar

19 Arrassen, M., op.cit., pp. 294–295 Google Scholar; Commentary on the Additional Protocols, op.cit., pp. 416–417, para. 1454.Google Scholar

20 “A total of over 14 million tonnes of munitions was directed against the whole of Indo-China by the USA”, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, World Armaments and Disarmament: SIPRI Yearbook 1978, Taylor and Francis Ltd., London, 1978, p. 44 Google Scholar, quoted in Arrassen, , op.cit., p. 281, note 169.Google Scholar

21 Napalm and other incendiary weapons and all aspects of their possible use, Report of the Secretary-General, United Nations, New York, 1973, p. 55, para. 189.Google Scholar

22 Herczegh, G., “La protection de l'environnement naturel et le droit humanitaire”, in Studies and essays on international humanitarian law and Red Cross principles in honour of Jean Pictet, Swinarski, C., ed., ICRC, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Geneva, The Hague, 1984, p. 732.Google Scholar

23 David, E., “La guerre du Golfe et le droit international”, Belgian Review of International Law, 1987–1991, p. 164, no. 17.Google Scholar

24 United Arab Emirates (9 March 1983), Kuwait (17 January 1985), Bahrain (30 October 1986), Saudi Arabia (21 August 1987) and Qatar (5 April 1988), IRRC, No. 280, 01–02 1991, pp. 78 ff.Google Scholar

25 See Ashley Roach, J., “The International Fact-Finding Commission — Article 90 of Protocol I additional to the 1949 Geneva Conventions”, IRRC, No. 281, 03–04 1991, pp. 167–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

26 Pictet, J., “International Humanitarian Law: definition” in International Dimensions of Humanitarian Law, Henry Dunant Institute, UNESCO, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, Boston and London, 1988, p. xix.Google Scholar

27 Sandoz, Y., op.cit., p. 153.Google Scholar Regarding the legal instruments which exist outside of the framework of international humanitarian law and apply to the Iran-Iraq war, see David, E., op.cit., p. 165 Google Scholar, concerning a 1983–1984 report of experts on the subject, the Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution (24 April 1978) and the attitude adopted by the UN Security Council in its resolution 540.

28 Sandoz, Y., op.cit., p. 154 Google Scholar; Herczegh, G., op.cit., p. 733.Google Scholar

29 David, E., “Evolution du droit humanitaire en un droit du moindre mal”, in Le droit international humanitaire, Problèmes actuels et perspectives d'avenir (colloquium, 13 and 14 December 1985), Les cahiers du droit public, Université de Clermont 1, ed., Centre de recherches et d'études de droit humanitaire et des droits de l'homme, 1987, pp. 31 ff.Google Scholar

30 “Article 48 ter: Publicly recognized nature reserves with adequate markings and boundaries declared as such to the adversary shall be protected and respected except when such reserves are used specifically for military purposes”, Commentary on the Additional Protocols, op.cit., p. 664, para. 2138.Google Scholar

31 Kiss, A., “Les Protocoles additionnels aux Conventions de Genève de 1977 et la protection des biens de l'environnement”, in Studies and Essays on international humanitarian law…, op.cit., p. 191.Google Scholar