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Workers, the Intelligentsia and Marxist Parties: St Petersburg, 1895–1917 and Shanghai, 1921–1927

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 February 2009

Steve A. Smith
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The article investigates relations between workers and intellectuals in the pre-revolutionary Bolshevik Party in St Petersburg and the Chinese Communist Party in Shanghai. It commences with a background examination of the social position and traditions of the intelligentsia in each country and the emergence of a stratum of so-called “conscious” workers. The position of workers in each party is then analysed, especially with respect to leadership, and the nature of tensions between workers and intellectuals explored. The investigation demonstrates that workers acquiesced in their subordination to a greater degree in Shanghai than in St Petersburg, and this and other differences are traced back to historical and cultural context. In conclusion, the implications of contextual differences are explored in order to suggest why the intelligentsia in the People's Republic of China (PRC) attracted greater odium from the party-state than its counterpart in the Soviet Union.

Type
Research Article
Information
International Review of Social History , Volume 41 , Issue 1 , April 1996 , pp. 1 - 56
Copyright
Copyright © Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis 1996

References

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89 The argument of this article is not that such tensions were abnormally acute within the Bolshevik party. Indeed the evidence for 1917 suggests that they may have been more muted than in society at large. The memoir sources on which I rely differ in their estimation of the seriousness of this tension. Lydia Dan, for instance, states: “I never found the workers unfavorable to the intelligentsia. Of course, there were individual cases, but I deny categorically that it was widespread.” Haimson, Three Revolutionaries, p. 81. See also R.E. Zelnik's thoughtful observations on the differences between Kanatchikov and Fisher in this respect, in Zelnik, Reginald E., “Russian Bebels: An Introduction to the Memoirs of the Russian Workers, Semen Kanatchikov and Matvei Fisher”, part 2, Russian Review, 4 (1976), p. 426Google Scholar.

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184 Wusa yundong shiliao [Historical Materials on the May Thirtieth Movement], 2 vols (Shanghai, 1986), 2, p. 685.

185 Laodongjie, 24, 23 January 1921.

186 Ibid., 21, 2 January 1921.

187 Zhongguo gongchandang diyici dahui, p. 37.

188 Zhongguo gongchandang Shanghai shi zuzhi shi ziliao, 1920.8–1987.10 [Historical Materials on the Organizations of the CCP in Shanghai, 1920–87] (Shanghai, 1991), p. 4.

189 Zhirong, Huang, “Guanyu yijiuersan nian zhi yijiuerqi nian Shanghai daxue dangzuzhi de fazhan qingkuang” [Concerning the conditions of development of party organization at Shanghai University in the years 1923 to 1927], Dangshi ziliao, 2 (11) (1982), pp. 98–99Google Scholar.

190 Ibid., p. 100.

191 North, Robert C., Kuomintang and Chinese Communist Elites (Stanford, 1952), pp. 46, 51 and 63Google Scholar.

192 Shanghai shangwu yinshuguan zhigong yundongshi [The History of the Labour Move-ment at the Shanghai Commercial Press] (Beijing, 1991), pp. 143 and 153–154.

193 Yihang, Shen, Peinan, Jiang and Qingsheng, Zheng, Shanghai gongren ynndong shi [A History of the Shanghai Labour Movement], 2 vols (Liaoning, 1991), 1, pp. 172–173Google Scholar.

194 Harrison, J.P., The Long March to Power: A History of the Chinese Communist Party, 1921–72 (London, 1972), pp. 64–65Google Scholar; Wilbur, C. Martin and How, Julie Lien-ying, Mission-aries of Revolution: Soviet Advisers and Nationalist China, 1920–1927 (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 531–532CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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196 Ibid., p. 31.

197 Jianshu, Ren, “Chen Duxiu yu Shanghai gongren sanci wuzhuang qiyi” [Chen Duxiu and the Three Workers' Armed Uprisings in Shanghai], Dangshi ziliao, 4 (13) (1982), p. 76Google Scholar; Shanghai gongren sanci wuzhuang qiyi [The Three Workers' Armed Uprisings in Shanghai] (Shanghai, 1983), p. 451.

198 Perry, Shanghai on Strike, p. 87.

199 Shanghai fangzhi gongren yundong shi [The History of the Labour Movement among Shanghai Textileworkers] (Beijing, 1991), p. 474; “Zhonggong Shanghai quwei youguan Shanghai gongren sanci wuzhuang qiyi de wenxian qi pian” [Seven Documents from the Shanghai regional committee of the CCP concerning the three workers' armed uprisings], Dang'an yu lishi [Archives and History], 1 (1987), p. 2.

200 Harrison, , Long March, p. 92, citing Zhongguo Gongchandang zlti Toitshi (Taibei, 1962), pp. 80–82Google Scholar.

201 Shanghai gongren sanci wuzliuang qiyi, pp. 112–113 and 148. The list for 1926 is in Jianying, Wang (ed.), Zhongguo gongchandang zuzltishi ziliao huibian [Edited Materials on the Organizational History of the CCP] (Beijing, 1982), pp. 39–40Google Scholar.

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203 Haojiong, Xu, “Liu Hua”, Zhongguo gongren yundong de xianfeng [Pioneers of the Chinese Labour Movement], 1 (Beijing, 1983), pp. 71–100Google Scholar.

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205 Wusa yundong shitiao, 2, pp. 8–11.

206 Shanghai fangzhi gongren, pp. 575–576.

207 Honig, Emily. “Native-Place Hierarchy and Labor Market Segmentation: The Case of Subet People in Shanghai”, in Rawski, Thomas G. and Li, Lillian M. (eds), Chinese History in Economic Perspective (Berkeley, 1992), pp. 271–294Google Scholar.

208 “Shanghai lieshi xiaozhuan [Brief Biographies of Shanghai Martyrs] (Shanghai, 1983), pp. 15–16.

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210 “Li Zhong xiaozhuan” [Short Biography of Li Zhong]. in Shanghai jiqi ye gongren yundong shi [A History of the Labour Movement in the Shanghai Machine Trades] (Beijing, 1991). pp. 332–335.

211 Shanghai jiqi ye gongren yundong shi pp. 322–326.

212 Harrison, Long March, p. 99.

213 Zhongguo gongchandang di erci dao di liuci quanguo daibiao dahui wenjian huibian [Compilation of Documents on the Second to the Sixth National Congresses of the CCP] (Beijing, 1981), p. 115; Dangshi yanjiu, 2 (1983), p. 40.

214 Gilmartin, Christina, “Gender in the Formation of a Communist Body Politic”, Modern China, 19/3 (1993), p. 316Google Scholar.

215 Shen Yihang, Shanghai gongren yundong, p. 283.

216 Shanghai fangzhi gongren, p. 577. See also Smith, Steve, “Class and Gender: Women's Strikes in St Petersburg, 1895–1917 and in Shanghai, 1895–1927”, Social History, 19/2 (1994), pp. 162–167Google Scholar.

217 Wilbur, C. Martin, “The Influence of the Past: How the Early Years Helped to Shape the Future of the Chinese Communist Party”, in Lewis, J. W. (ed.). Party Leadership and Revolutionary Power in China (Cambridge, 1970), p. 60Google Scholar.

218 Juewu [Awakening], 1 (1920). Cited in Leung, “Work-Study”, p. 176.

219 Baofang, Xu and Xingying, Bian (eds), Shanghai gongren sanci wuzhuang qiyi yanjiu [Research Materials on the Three Workers' Armed Uprisings in Shanghai] (Shanghai, 1987), p. 368Google Scholar.

220 Wilbur, Missionaries, pp. 527–528.

221 Wusa yundong [The May Thirtieth Movement], 3 vols (Shanghai, 1991), 1, p. 7.

222 Pickowicz, Marxist Literary Thought, p. 46.

223 Wilbur, Missionaries, p. 527.

224 Rankin, Early Chinese Revolutionaries, pp. 40–46.

225 Quoted in Harrison, Long March, P 40.

226 Wilbur, Missionaries, p. 528.

227 Ibid., p. 462.

228 Wiisa yundong, 1, p. 7.

229 Tun, Mao, Midnight (Beijing, 1957), p. 381Google Scholar.

230 Pickowicz, Marxist Literary Tftought, p. 99.

231 Meikun, Xu, “Jiang-Zhe quwei chcngli qianhou de pianduan huiyi” [Fragmentary Recollections from around the Time of the Foundation of the Jiangsu-Zhcjiang Regional Committee], Dangshi ziliao, 2 (7) (1981), p. 27Google Scholar.

232 Shen Yihang, Shanghai gongren yundong, frontispiece.

233 Chinese Economic Journal, 9/4 (1931), p. 1075.

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235 Wusa yundong shiliao, 1, p. 577.

236 Ibid., p. 289.

237 Guanzhi, Liu, “Guanyu 1924–1925 nian Shanghai gongren yundong de hutyi” [Recollections of the Shanghai Labour Movement in 1924–25], Zhongguo gongren yundong shiliao [Historical Materials on the Chinese Labour Movement], 1 (1960), p. 37Google Scholar.

238 Wusa yundong shiliao, 1.PP 289 and 374.

239 Zhongxia, Deng, Zhongguo zhigong yundong jianshi [A Short History of the Chinese Labour Movement] (Beijing, 1957), p. 119Google Scholar.

240 Chaojun, Ma, Zhongguo laodong wenti [Problems of Chinese Labour] (Shanghai, 1925), p. 6Google Scholar.

241 Guowen zhoubao [National Literary Weekly], 3/28, 25 July 1926, p. 9.

242 Xiandai shiliao [Historical Materials on the Contemporary Era], 1 (Shanghai, 1934), pp. 226–227; Ling, Ding, “Qu Qiubai”, Yi Qiubai [Recollections of Qiubai] (Beijing, 1981), pp. 134–140Google Scholar; Gilmartin, “Gender”, p. 316.

243 Ibid., p. 310.

244 Ven, Hans J. Van de, From Friend to Comrade: The Founding of the Chinese Communist Party, 1920–1927 (Berkeley, 1991), p. 55Google Scholar.

245 Zhonggong gongshi renwu zhuan, 9, pp. 164 and 171; Perry, Shanghai on Strike, p. 73.

246 Wusa yundong shiliao, 1, p. 575.

247 Dangdai shichttan [An Abbreviated History of the Contemporary Era] (Shanghai, 1933), p. 272.

248 “Erda” he “Sanda”: Zhongguo gongchandang dier-san daibiao dahui ziliao xuanbian [Selected Materials on the Second and Third Congresses of the CCP] (Beijing, 1985), p. 171.

249 Wilbur, Missionaries, p. 733.

250 Harrison, Long March, p. 99.

251 Mao Tun, Midnight, p. 425.

252 Gang, Hua, Yijiuerwu nian zhi yijiuerqi nian de Zhongguo da geming shi [A History of the Chinese Revolution, 1925–27] (Shanghai, 1931), p. 525Google Scholar.

253 These ideas were set out in the essay, “The Evolution of Social Democracy” (1898), which became the basis of the book, The Intellectual Worker in 1904. See Volskii, V. (Machajski), Umstvennyi Rabochii (Geneva, 1905)Google Scholar; Machajski, J. W., Le Socialisme des intellectuels, ed. and trans. Skirda, A. (Paris, 1979)Google Scholar.

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254 Wusa yundong shiliao, 1, p. 275.

256 During the Cultural Revolution traditional forms of entertainment came under fire in the campaign against the “four olds”.

257 Wasserstrom, Student Protest, p. 124.

258 For the relative restraint of the early Soviet period, see Koenker, Diane P. et al. (eds). Party, State and Society in the Russian Civil War (Bloomington, 1989)Google Scholar, section 4.

259 Fitzpatrick, Sheila, Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union, 1921–1934 (Cambridge, 1979)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, chs 9 and 11.

260 Read, Christopher, Culture and Power in Revolutionary Russia (London. 1990). p. 233CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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263 Spence, Jonathan D., The Search for Modern China (New York, 1990), p. 572Google Scholar.

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266 Even Merle Goldman, while emphasizing that only a minority of intellectuals ever felt a sense of responsibility to address political issues, tends t o play down the extent of repression, emphasizing rather the ways in which liberal and radical elements of the intelligentsia allied with different factions in the party, thus bringing nemesis upon themselves. Goldman, Merle, China's Intellectuals: Advise and Dissent (Cambridge, MA, 1981)Google Scholar.

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