Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T18:42:00.016Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Management of visual hallucinations in dementia and Parkinson’s disease

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 November 2018

Peter Swann  and
John T. O’Brien
Peter Swann*
Affiliation:
Papworth Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK
John T. O’Brien
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
*
Correspondence should be addressed to: Peter Swann, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Box 189 Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK. Phone: +44 (0) 1223 337 106; Fax: +44 (0) 1223 336 968. Email: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objectives:

Visual hallucinations are a common symptom in dementia and Parkinson’s disease and have been associated with greater cognitive and functional decline, but optimal management strategies are unclear. We review the frequency and pathogenesis of visual hallucinations in dementia and Parkinson’s disease and examine the evidence base for their management.

Design:

We undertook a systematic review of the visual hallucinations in dementia, searching studies published between January 1980 and July 2017 using PubMed with the search terms visual hallucinations AND review AND (dementia OR parkinson*).

Results:

We found 645 articles and screened them for relevance, finally including 89 papers (11 meta-analyses, 34 randomized controlled trials, six other trials and a number of relevant review articles). Only six of the trials reported visual hallucination outcomes separately from other neuropsychiatric symptoms.

Conclusions:

Atypical antipsychotics were frequently studied, but with the exception of clozapine in Parkinson’s disease dementia, results were equivocal. There was some evidence that acetylcholinesterase inhibitors may help visual hallucinations. Overall, effect sizes for most treatments were small and there were few studies with long term follow up. Treatments need to be carefully weighed up with the risks and reviewed often, and many patients improved without treatment. There is a lack of data regarding visual hallucinations due to the grouping of psychotic symptoms together in commonly used rating scales. The lack of a specific rating scales, or analyzable items within other scales, for visual hallucinations, limited efficacy of current and small evidence base with short follow up are important areas for future studies to address.

Keywords

hallucinationsvisualdementiaAlzheimer’sParkinson’sLewy bodyantipsychoticacetylcholinesterase
Type
Review Article
Information
International Psychogeriatrics , Volume 31 , Issue 6: Issue Theme: Frailty, Cognition, and Mental Health , June 2019 , pp. 815 - 836
Copyright
© International Psychogeriatric Association 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aarsland, D., Larsen, J. P., Cummins, J. L. and Laake, K. (1999). Prevalence and clinical correlates of psychotic symptoms in Parkinson disease: a community-based study. Archives of Neurology, 56, 595–601. doi: 10.1001/archneur.56.5.595.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aarsland, D., Larsen, J. P., Tandberg, E. and Laake, K. (2000). Predictors of nursing home placement in Parkinson’s disease: a population-based, prospective study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 48, 938–942. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2000.tb06891.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alvir, J. M., Lieberman, J. A., Safferman, A. Z., Schwimmer, J. L. and Schaaf, J. A. (1993). Clozapine-induced agranulocytosis. Incidence and risk factors in the United States. The New England Journal of Medicine, 329, 162–167. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199307153290303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, W. L. et al. (2009). Dopamine agonists in the treatment of early Parkinson’s disease: a meta-analysis. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 15, 287–294. doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2008.07.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ballard, C. G., O’Brien, J. T., Swann, A. G., Thompson, P., Neill, D. and McKeith, I. G. (2001). The natural history of psychosis and depression in dementia with Lewy bodies and Alzheimer’s disease: persistence and new cases over 1 year of follow-up. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62, 46–49. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v62n0110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ballard, C. and Waite, J. (2006). The effectiveness of atypical antipsychotics for the treatment of aggression and psychosis in Alzheimer’s disease. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 25, CD003476. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003476.pub2.Google Scholar
Ballard, C., et al. (2016). Impact of antipsychotic review and nonpharmacological intervention on antipsychotic use, neuropsychiatric symptoms, and mortality in people with dementia living in nursing homes: a factorial cluster-randomized controlled trial by the well-being and health for people with dementia (WHELD) program. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 173, 252–262. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15010130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ballard, C. et al. (2018). Evaluation of the safety, tolerability, and efficacy of pimavanserin versus placebo in patients with Alzheimer’s disease psychosis: a phase 2, randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. The Lancet Neurology, 17, 213–222. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30039-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnes, J. and David, A. S. (2001). Visual hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease: a review and phenomenological survey. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 70, 727–733. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.70.6.727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bassiony, M. M., Steinberg, M. S., Warren, A., Rosenblatt, A., Baker, A. S. and Lyketsos, C. G. (2000). Delusions and hallucinations in Alzheimer’s disease: prevalence and clinical correlates. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 15, 99–107. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(200002)15:2<99::AID-GPS82>3.0.CO;2-5.3.0.CO;2-5>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bassiony, M. M. and Lyketsos, C. G. (2003). Delusions and hallucinations in Alzheimer’s disease: review of the brain decade. Psychosomatics, 44, 388–401. doi: 10.1176/appi.psy.44.5.388.Google ScholarPubMed
Bergman, J. and Lerner, V. (2002). Successful use of donepezil for the treatment of psychotic symptoms in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 25, 107–110. doi: 10.1097/00002826-200203000-00009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergman, J., Lerner, P. P., Sokolik, S., Lerner, V., Kreinin, A. and Miodownik, C. (2017). Successful use of escitalopram for the treatment of visual hallucinations in patients with Parkinson disease. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 40, 246–250. doi: 10.1097/WNF.0000000000000254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bozymski, K. M., Lowe, D. K., Pasternak, K. M., Gatesman, T. L. and Crouse, E. L. (2017). Pimavanserin: a novel antipsychotic for Parkinson’s disease psychosis. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 51, 479–487. doi: 10.1177/1060028017693029.Google ScholarPubMed
Breier, A. et al. (2002). Olanzapine in the treatment of dopamimetic-induced psychosis in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 438–445. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01392-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broadstock, M., Ballard, C. and Corbett, A. (2014). Novel pharmaceuticals in the treatment of psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology, 7, 779–786. doi: 10.1586/17512433.2014.966814.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bullock, R. et al. (2005). Rivastigmine and donepezil treatment in moderate to moderately-severe Alzheimer’s disease over a 2-year period. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 21, 1317–1327. doi: 10.1185/030079905X56565.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burn, D. et al. (2006). Effects of rivastigmine in patients with and without visual hallucinations in dementia associated with Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders: Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 21, 1899–1907. doi: 10.1002/mds.21077.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burton, M. C., Koeller, S. L., Brekke, F. M., Afonya, A. T., Sutor, B. and Lapid, M. I. (2017). Use of electroconvulsive therapy in dementia-related agitation: a case series. The Journal of ECT, 33, 286–289. doi: 10.1097/YCT.0000000000000432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, N. et al. (2008). Impact of cholinesterase inhibitors on behavioral and psychological symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease: a meta-analysis. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 3, 719–728. doi: 10.2147/CIA.S4250.Google ScholarPubMed
Carter, R. and Ffytche, D. H. (2015). On visual hallucinations and cortical networks: a trans-diagnostic review. Journal of Neurology, 262, 1780–1790. doi: 10.1007/s00415-015-7687-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collerton, D. and Taylor, J.-P. (2013). Advances in the treatment of visual hallucinations in neurodegenerative diseases. Future Neurology, 8, 433–444. doi: 10.2217/fnl.13.19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Combs, B. L. and Cox, A. G. (2017). Update on the treatment of Parkinson’s disease psychosis: role of pimavanserin. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, Volume 13, 737–744. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S108948.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connolly, B. S. and Lang, A. E. (2014). Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson disease: a review. JAMA, 311, 1670–1683. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.3654.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connors, M. H. et al. (2017). Non-pharmacological interventions for Lewy body dementia: a systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 48, 1749–1758. doi: 10.1017/S0033291717003257.Google ScholarPubMed
Corey-Bloom, J. and Galasko, D. (1995). Adjunctive therapy in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. A practical approach. Drugs & Aging, 7, 79–87. doi: 10.2165/00002512-199507020-00002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, J. et al. (2014). Pimavanserin for patients with Parkinson’s disease psychosis: a randomised, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet (London, England), 383, 533–540. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62106-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, J. L. et al. (1994). The Neuropsychiatric Inventory: comprehensive assessment of psychopathology in dementia. Neurology, 44, 2308. doi: 10.1212/WNL.44.12.2308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, J. L., Koumaras, B., Chen, M., Mirski, D. and Rivastigmine Nursing Home Study Team. (2005). Effects of rivastigmine treatment on the neuropsychiatric and behavioral disturbances of nursing home residents with moderate to severe probable Alzheimer’s disease: a 26-week, multicenter, open-label study. The American Journal of Geriatric Pharmacotherapy, 3, 137–148. doi: 10.1016/S1543-5946(05)80020-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, J. L., Street, J., Masterman, D. and Clark, W. S. (2002). Efficacy of olanzapine in the treatment of psychosis in dementia with Lewy bodies. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 13, 67–73. doi: 10.1159/000048636.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Deyn, P. et al. (2005). Aripiprazole for the treatment of psychosis in patients with Alzheimer’s disease: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 25, 463–467. doi: 10.1097/01.jcp.0000178415.22309.8f.Google ScholarPubMed
de la Riva, P., Smith, K., Xie, S. X. and Weintraub, D. (2014). Course of psychiatric symptoms and global cognition in early Parkinson disease. Neurology, 83, 1096–1103. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000000801.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Devanand, D. P. and Levy, S. R. (1995). Neuroleptic treatment of agitation and psychosis in dementia. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 8, S18–S27. doi: 10.1177/089198879500800104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diederich, N. J., Pieri, V. and Goetz, C. G. (2003). Coping strategies for visual hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders: Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 18, 831–832. doi: 10.1002/mds.10450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donaghy, P. C., O’Brien, J. T. and Thomas, A. J. (2015). Prodromal dementia with Lewy bodies. Psychological Medicine, 45, 259–268. doi: 10.1017/S0033291714000816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dotchin, C. L., Jusabani, A. and Walker, R. W. (2009). Non-motor symptoms in a prevalent population with Parkinson’s disease in Tanzania. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 15, 457–460. doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2008.11.013.Google Scholar
Dubois, B. et al. (2012). Donepezil in Parkinson’s disease dementia: a randomized, double-blind efficacy and safety study. Movement Disorders: Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 27, 1230–1238. doi: 10.1002/mds.25098.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eichhorn, T. E., Brunt, E. and Oertel, W. H. (1996). Ondansetron treatment of L-dopa-induced psychosis. Neurology, 47, 1608–1609. doi: 10.1212/WNL.47.6.1608-b.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, T., Cudkowicz, M. E., Sexton, P. M. and Growdon, J. H. (2000). Clozapine and risperidone treatment of psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 12, 364–369. doi: 10.1176/jnp.12.3.364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emre, M. et al. (2004). Rivastigmine for dementia associated with Parkinson’s disease. The New England Journal of Medicine, 351, 2509–2518. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa041470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emre, M. et al. (2010). Memantine for patients with Parkinson’s disease dementia or dementia with Lewy bodies: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The Lancet. Neurology, 9, 969–977. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70194-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Factor, S. A., McDonald, W. M. and Goldstein, F. C. (2017). The role of neurotransmitters in the development of Parkinson’s disease-related psychosis. European Journal of Neurology, 24, 1244–1254. doi: 10.1111/ene.13376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farlow, M. R. and Shamliyan, T. A. (2017). Benefits and harms of atypical antipsychotics for agitation in adults with dementia. European Neuropsychopharmacology: The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 27, 217–231. doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.01.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fénelon, G. and Alves, G. (2010). Epidemiology of psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 289, 12–17. doi: 10.1016/j.jns.2009.08.014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fénelon, G., Mahieux, F., Huon, R. and Ziégler, M. (2000). Hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease: prevalence, phenomenology and risk factors. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 123, 733–745.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fernandez, H. et al. (2009). Quetiapine improves visual hallucinations in Parkinson disease but not through normalization of sleep architecture. Results from a double blind clinical-polysomnography study. International Journal of Neuroscience, 119, 2196–2205. doi: 10.3109/00207450903222758.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ffytche, D. H. and Howard, R. J. (1999). The perceptual consequences of visual loss: “positive” pathologies of vision. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 122, 1247–1260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkel, S. I., Mintzer, J. E., Dysken, M., Krishnan, K. R. R., Burt, T. and McRae, T. (2004). A randomized, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy and safety of sertraline in the treatment of the behavioral manifestations of Alzheimer’s disease in outpatients treated with donepezil. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 19, 9–18. doi: 10.1002/gps.998.Google ScholarPubMed
Ford, B., Lynch, T. and Greene, P. (1994). Risperidone in Parkinson’s disease. The Lancet, 344, 681. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(94)92114-8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friedman, J. H. (2012). Melperone is ineffective in treating Parkinson’s disease psychosis. Movement Disorders, 27, 803–804. doi: 10.1002/mds.24942.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friedman, J. H. (2013). Parkinson disease psychosis: update. Behavioural Neurology, 27, 469–477. doi: 10.1155/2013/645429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friedman, J. H. et al. (2006). Open-label flexible-dose pilot study to evaluate the safety and tolerability of aripiprazole in patients with psychosis associated with Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders: Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 21, 2078–2081. doi: 10.1002/mds.21091.Google ScholarPubMed
Gama, R. L. et al. (2015). Risk factors for visual hallucinations in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Neurological Research, 37, 112–116. doi: 10.1179/1743132814Y.0000000418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goetz, C. G., Blasucci, L. M., Leurgans, S. and Pappert, E. J. (2000). Olanzapine and clozapine: comparative effects on motor function in hallucinating PD patients. Neurology, 55, 789–794. doi: 10.1212/WNL.55.6.789.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Han, L., McCusker, J., Cole, M., Abrahamowicz, M., Primeau, F. and Elie, M. (2001). Use of medications with anticholinergic effect predicts clinical severity of delirium symptoms in older medical inpatients. Archives of Internal Medicine, 161, 1099–1105. doi: 10.1001/archinte.161.8.1099.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hatoum, H. T., Lin, S.-J., Arcona, S., Thomas, S. K., Koumaras, B. and Mirski, D. (2005). The use of the occupational disruptiveness scale of the neuropsychiatric inventory-nursing home version to measure the impact of rivastigmine on the disruptive behavior of nursing home residents with Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 6, 238–245. doi: 10.1016/j.jamda.2005.04.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henriksen, A.-L., St Dennis, C., Setter, S. M. and Tran, J. T. (2006). Dementia with Lewy bodies: therapeutic opportunities and pitfalls. The Consultant Pharmacist: The Journal of the American Society of Consultant Pharmacists, 21, 563–575. doi: 10.4140/TCP.n.2006.563.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrmann, N., Rabheru, K., Wang, J. and Binder, C. (2005). Galantamine treatment of problematic behavior in Alzheimer disease: post-hoc analysis of pooled data from three large trials. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 13, 527–534. doi: 10.1097/00019442-200506000-00012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirono, N. and Cummings, J. L. (1999). Neuropsychiatric aspects of dementia with Lewy bodies. Current Psychiatry Reports, 1, 85–92. doi: 10.1007/s11920-999-0014-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ikeda, M., Mori, E., Matsuo, K., Nakagawa, M. and Kosaka, K. (2015). Donepezil for dementia with Lewy bodies: a randomized, placebo-controlled, confirmatory phase III trial. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy, 7, 4. doi: 10.1186/s13195-014-0083-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, M. L., Bassett, K., Nirmalan, P. V. and Sayre, E. C. (2007). Contrast sensitivity and visual hallucinations in patients referred to a low vision rehabilitation clinic. The British Journal of Ophthalmology, 91, 296–298. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2006.104604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kales, H. C., Gitlin, L. N., Lyketsos, C. G. and Detroit Expert Panel on Assessment and Management of Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Dementia. (2014). Management of neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia in clinical settings: recommendations from a multidisciplinary expert panel. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 62, 762–769. doi: 10.1111/jgs.12730.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kertesz, A. et al. (2013). Psychosis and hallucinations in frontotemporal dementia with the C9ORF72 mutation: a detailed clinical cohort. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology: Official Journal of the Society for Behavioral and Cognitive Neurology, 26, 146–154. doi: 10.1097/WNN.0000000000000008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurlan, R. et al. (2007). Quetiapine for agitation or psychosis in patients with dementia and parkinsonism. Neurology, 68, 1356–1363. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000260060.60870.89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landqvist Waldö, M., Gustafson, L., Passant, U. and Englund, E. (2015). Psychotic symptoms in frontotemporal dementia: a diagnostic dilemma? International Psychogeriatrics, 27, 531–539. doi: 10.1017/S1041610214002580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lenka, A., Herath, P., Christopher, R. and Pal, P. K. (2017). Psychosis in Parkinson’s disease: from the soft signs to the hard science. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 379, 169–176. doi: 10.1016/j.jns.2017.06.011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leroi, I. et al. (2004). Randomized placebo-controlled trial of donepezil in cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 19, 1–8. doi: 10.1002/gps.993.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livingston, G. et al. (2014). Non-pharmacological interventions for agitation in dementia: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 205, 436–442. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.113.141119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lopez, O. L., Becker, J. T., Brenner, R. P., Rosen, J., Bajulaiye, O. I. and Reynolds, C. F. (1991). Alzheimer’s disease with delusions and hallucinations: neuropsychological and electroencephalographic correlates. Neurology, 41, 906–906. doi: 10.1212/WNL.41.6.906.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maher, A. R. et al. (2011). Efficacy and comparative effectiveness of atypical antipsychotic medications for off-label uses in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA, 306, 1359–1369. doi: 10.1001/jama.2011.1360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mathis, M. V. et al. (2017). The US food and drug administration’s perspective on the new antipsychotic pimavanserin. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 78, e668–e673. doi: 10.4088/JCP.16r11119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matsuda, Y., Kishi, T., Shibayama, H. and Iwata, N. (2013). Yokukansan in the treatment of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Human Psychopharmacology, 28, 80–86. doi: 10.1002/hup.2286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKeith, I. et al. (2000). Efficacy of rivastigmine in dementia with Lewy bodies: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled international study. Lancet (London, England), 356, 2031–2036. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)03399-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKeith, I. G. et al. (2005). Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy bodies: third report of the DLB Consortium. Neurology, 65, 1863–1872. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000187889.17253.b1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKeith, I. G. et al. (2017). Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy bodies: fourth consensus report of the DLB consortium. Neurology, 89, 88–100. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000004058.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKeith, I. G., Ballard, C. G. and Harrison, R. W. (1995). Neuroleptic sensitivity to risperidone in Lewy body dementia. Lancet (London, England), 346, 699. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(95)92307-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meco, G., Alessandri, A., Giustini, P. and Bonifati, V. (1997). Risperidone in levodopa-induced psychosis in advanced Parkinson’s disease: an open-label, long-term study. Movement Disorders, 12, 610–612. doi: 10.1002/mds.870120423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meltzer, H. Y. et al. (2010). Pimavanserin, a serotonin (2A) receptor inverse agonist, for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 881–892. doi: 10.1038/npp.2009.176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merims, D., Balas, M., Peretz, C., Shabtai, H. and Giladi, N. (2006). Rater-blinded, prospective comparison: quetiapine versus clozapine for Parkinson’s disease psychosis. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 29, 331–337. doi: 10.1097/01.WNF.0000236769.31279.19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mintzer, J. E. et al. (2007). Aripiprazole for the treatment of psychoses in institutionalized patients with Alzheimer dementia: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled assessment of three fixed doses. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 15, 918–931. doi: 10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181557b47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mizoguchi, K. and Ikarashi, Y. (2017). Multiple psychopharmacological effects of the traditional Japanese Kampo Medicine Yokukansan, and the brain regions it affects. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 8, 149. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00149.Google ScholarPubMed
Mohr, E., Mendis, T., Hildebrand, K. and De Deyn, P. P. (2000). Risperidone in the treatment of dopamine-induced psychosis in Parkinson’s disease: an open pilot trial. Movement Disorders: Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 15, 1230–1237. doi: 10.1002/1531-8257(200011)15:6<1230::AID-MDS1026>3.0.CO;2-9.3.0.CO;2-9>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgante, L. et al. (2004). Quetiapine and clozapine in parkinsonian patients with dopaminergic psychosis. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 27, 153–156. doi: 10.1097/01.wnf.0000136891.17006.ec.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mori, E., Ikeda, M., Kosaka, K. and Donepezil-DLB Study Investigators. (2012). Donepezil for dementia with Lewy bodies: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Annals of Neurology, 72, 41–52. doi: 10.1002/ana.23557.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mosimann, U. P. et al. (2008). A semi-structured interview to assess visual hallucinations in older people. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23, 712–718. doi: 10.1002/gps.1965.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munro, J., O’sullivan, D., Andrews, C., Arana, A., Mortimer, A. and Kerwin, R. (1999). Active monitoring of 12, 760 clozapine recipients in the UK and Ireland. Beyond pharmacovigilance. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 175, 576–580. doi: 10.1192/bjp.175.6.576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nishioka, K. et al. (2014). Quantitative evaluation of electroconvulsive therapy for Parkinson’s disease with refractory psychiatric symptoms. Journal of Neural Transmission (Vienna, Austria: 1996), 121, 1405–1410. doi: 10.1007/s00702-014-1212-4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ojo, O. O. and Fernandez, H. H. (2016). Current understanding of psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Current Psychiatry Reports, 18, 97. doi: 10.1007/s11920-016-0730-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olazarán, J. et al. (2010). Nonpharmacological therapies in Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review of efficacy. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 30, 161–178. doi: 10.1159/000316119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ondo, W. G., Tintner, R., Voung, K. D., Lai, D. and Ringholz, G. (2005). Double-blind, placebo-controlled, unforced titration parallel trial of quetiapine for dopaminergic-induced hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders: Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 20, 958–963. doi: 10.1002/mds.20474.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parkinson Study Group. (1999). Low-dose clozapine for the treatment of drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. The New England Journal of Medicine, 340, 757–763. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199903113401003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perry, E. K., Kerwin, J., Perry, R. H., Irving, D., Blessed, G. and Fairbairn, A. (1990). Cerebral cholinergic activity is related to the incidence of visual hallucinations in senile dementia of lewy body type. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 1, 2–4. doi: 10.1159/000107114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perry, E. K. and Perry, R. H. (1995). Acetylcholine and hallucinations: disease-related compared to drug-induced alterations in human consciousness. Brain and Cognition, 28, 240–258. doi: 10.1006/brcg.1995.1255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pezzoli, S., Cagnin, A., Bandmann, O. and Venneri, A. (2017). Structural and functional neuroimaging of visual hallucinations in Lewy body disease: a systematic literature review. Brain Sciences, 7, 84. doi: 10.3390/brainsci7070084.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollak, P. et al. (2004). Clozapine in drug induced psychosis in Parkinson’s disease: a randomised, placebo controlled study with open follow up. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 75, 689–695. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2003.029868.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollock, B. G. et al. (2007). A double-blind comparison of citalopram and risperidone for the treatment of behavioral and psychotic symptoms associated with dementia. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 15, 942–952. doi: 10.1097/JGP.0b013e3180cc1ff5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rabey, J. M., Prokhorov, T., Miniovitz, A., Dobronevsky, E. and Klein, C. (2007). Effect of quetiapine in psychotic Parkinson’s disease patients: a double-blind labeled study of 3 months’ duration. Movement Disorders: Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 22, 313–318. doi: 10.1002/mds.21116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ropacki, S. A. and Jeste, D. V. (2005). Epidemiology of and risk factors for psychosis of Alzheimer’s disease: a review of 55 studies published from 1990 to 2003. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 2022–2030. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.11.2022.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rolinski, M., Fox, C., Maidment, I. and McShane, R. (2012). Cholinesterase inhibitors for dementia with Lewy bodies, Parkinson’s disease dementia and cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 14, CD006504. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006504.Google Scholar
Rovers, J. M. et al. (2006). [Rivastigmine as adjunctive therapy in the therapeutic dilemma for the treatment of hallucinations due to Parkinson disease]. Tijdschrift Voor Gerontologie En Geriatrie, 37, 127–130. doi: 10.1007/BF03074779.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samochocki, M. et al. (2003). Galantamine is an allosterically potentiating ligand of neuronal nicotinic but not of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 305, 1024–1036. doi: 10.1124/jpet.102.045773.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scarmeas, N. et al. (2005). Delusions and hallucinations are associated with worse outcome in Alzheimer disease. Archives of Neurology, 62, 1601–1608. doi: 10.1001/archneur.62.10.1601.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, L. S. et al. (2001). National institute of mental health clinical antipsychotic trials of intervention effectiveness (CATIE): Alzheimer disease trial methodology. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 9, 346–360. doi: 10.1097/00019442-200111000-00004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shannon, K. M., Bennett, J. P. and Friedman, J. H. (1997). Efficacy of pramipexole, a novel dopamine agonist, as monotherapy in mild to moderate Parkinson’s disease. The pramipexole study group. Neurology, 49, 724–728. doi: 10.1212/WNL.49.3.724.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shotbolt, P., Samuel, M. and David, A. (2010). Quetiapine in the treatment of psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Therapeutic Advances in Neurological Disorders, 3, 339–350. doi: 10.1177/1756285610389656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singh, A. and Sørensen, T. L. (2011). Charles Bonnet syndrome improves when treatment is effective in age-related macular degeneration. The British Journal of Ophthalmology, 95, 291–292. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2010.179465.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, M. and Lyketsos, C. G. (2012). Atypical antipsychotic use in patients with dementia: managing safety concerns. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 900–906. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12030342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stinton, C. et al. (2015). Pharmacological management of Lewy body dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 731–742. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14121582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stowe, R. L. et al. (2008). Dopamine agonist therapy in early Parkinson’s disease. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 16, CD006564. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006564.pub2.Google Scholar
Streim, J. E. et al. (2008). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of aripiprazole for the treatment of psychosis in nursing home patients with Alzheimer disease. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 16, 537–550. doi: 10.1097/JGP.0b013e318165db77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sunderland, T., Tariot, P. N. and Newhouse, P. A. (1988). Differential responsivity of mood, behavior and cognition to cholinergic agents in elderly neuropsychiatric populations. Brain Research Reviews, 13, 371–389. doi: 10.1016/0165-0173(88)90013-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Urwyler, P. et al. (2016). Visual hallucinations in eye disease and Lewy body disease. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 24, 350–358. doi: 10.1016/j.jagp.2015.10.007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, J. et al. (2015). Pharmacological treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 86, 101–109. doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2014-308112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weintraub, D., Chen, P., Ignacio, R. V., Mamikonyan, E. and Kales, H. C. (2011). Patterns and trends in antipsychotic prescribing for Parkinson disease psychosis. Archives of Neurology, 68, 899–904. doi: 10.1001/archneurol.2011.139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wild, R., Pettit, T. and Burns, A. (2003). Cholinesterase inhibitors for dementia with Lewy bodies. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (3), CD003672. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003672.Google Scholar
Williams, D. R. and Lees, A. J. (2005). Visual hallucinations in the diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson’s disease: a retrospective autopsy study. The Lancet Neurology, 4, 605–610. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(05)70146-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, D. R., Warren, J. D. and Lees, A. J. (2008). Using the presence of visual hallucinations to differentiate Parkinson’s disease from atypical parkinsonism. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 79, 652–655. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2007.124677.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, S. et al. (2000). The use of the neuropsychiatric inventory in nursing home residents. Characterization and measurement. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 8, 75–83. doi: 10.1097/00019442-200002000-00010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Workman, R. H., Orengo, C. A., Bakey, A. A., Molinari, V. A. and Kunik, M. E. (1997). The use of risperidone for psychosis and agitation in demented patients with Parkinson’s disease. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 9, 594–597. doi: 10.1176/jnp.9.4.594.Google ScholarPubMed
Yasue, I., Matsunaga, S., Kishi, T., Fujita, K. and Iwata, N. (2016). Serotonin 2A receptor inverse agonist as a treatment for Parkinson’s disease psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of serotonin 2A receptor negative modulators. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease: JAD, 50, 733–740. doi: 10.3233/JAD-150818.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhao, Q. F. et al. (2016). The prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 190, 264–271. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2015.09.069.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zoldan, J., Friedberg, G., Goldberg-Stern, H. and Melamed, E. (1993). Ondansetron for hallucinosis in advanced Parkinson’s disease. The Lancet, 341, 562–563. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(93)90327-D.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zoldan, J., Friedberg, G., Livneh, M. and Melamed, E. (1995). Psychosis in advanced Parkinson’s disease: treatment with ondansetron, a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist. Neurology, 45, 1305–1308. doi: 10.1212/WNL.45.7.1305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed