The advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice adopted by 9 votes to 5 on July 20, 1962, affirmed that the expenditures authorized for operations in the Congo (ONUC) by General Assembly resolutions from December 20, i960, to October 30, 1961, and the expenditures authorized for the operations of the UN Emergency Force (UNEF) in the Middle East from November 26, 1956, to December 20, 1960, constitute “Expenses of the Organization” within the meaning of Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Charter of the United Nations. Though the Court, for reasons discussed below, refrained from declaring it explicitly, the opinion had the effect of holding that Members of the UN were legally bound to pay the assessments made by the Assembly to defray the costs of the two operations. The Court arrived at this conclusion by a relatively simple process of reasoning: first, it found that the text of Article 17, paragraph 2, related to expenses incurred in carrying out the purposes of the Organization; second, it examined the expenditures referred to above, and found that they were incurred with that end in view; thirdly and finally, it examined arguments which had been advanced against its conclusion and found them without merit. Some of these arguments will be examined later.

The present critical stage of inter-American relations offers a timely occasion for an inquiring glance at the Organization of American States (OAS). For more than half a century—and particularly during the last two decades—the United States has increasingly adapted its policy toward Latin America to the principles and procedures of the Organization of American States, confident that such an approach would best serve our long-range objectives in the hemisphere. Yet the varying responses which the United States has gained from the regional agency when problems of high importance have been submitted to it constitute one of the most confusing aspects of our hemisphere relations. The last few years have provided a striking illustration of this point.

The purpose of this paper is to identify the perspectives which govern the opinions of French leaders toward the United Nations. Having identified these perspectives, we shall seek to characterize the differences between them in terms of their motivation, content, and outcome. Our objective is to qualify conventional stereotypes that have been more repeated than investigated, such as that “the French” are hostile to the UN because they are “nationalists”. While traditional nationalism is still a powerful political emotion in France, it is expressed in various ways among contemporary Frenchmen. The varieties of French nationalism today include—and the paradox is more apparent than real—both commitments to internationalism and loyalties to supranationalism.

The experience of participating in the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), in several different capacities, has acquainted me with the many management problems that faced the Organization in its first dozen years. The present article deals with some of these problems under four headings of unequal importance: UNESCO's functions, 2) the organization of its secretariat, 3) the relations of the Director-General with the legislative organs, and 4) personnel administration.

Listed below is the membership of UN bodies for 1962. Unless otherwise noted, membership expires on December 31 of the year indicated in parentheses.

The General Assembly held its seventeenth session, comprising the II22nd–I202nd plenary meetings, at UN Headquarters from September 18 through December 20, 1962, during which time it took action on 95 items. The Assembly decided to convene a special session prior to June 30, 1963, for the purpose of considering the financial situation of the Organization. Six countries were admitted to membership during the session: at the II22nd meeting, Rwanda, Burundi, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago; at the II46th meeting, Algeria; and at the II58th meeting, Uganda. The membership of the UN was thereby brought to IIO.

The Security Council discussed this question at its 1022nd–1025th meetings, on October 23–25, 1962. It had before it a letter dated October 22, 1962, from the permanent representative of the United States, in which it was stated that the establishment of missile bases in Cuba constituted a grave threat to the peace and security of the world; a letter of the same date from the permanent representative of Cuba, claiming that the United States naval blockade of Cuba constituted an act of war; and a letter also dated October 22 from the deputy permanent representative of the Soviet Union, emphasizing that Soviet assistance to Cuba was exclusively designed to improve Cuba's defensive capacity and that the United States government had committed a provocative act and an unprecedented violation of international law in its blockade.

The 34th session of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), comprising the 1209th–1236th meetings, was held in Geneva from July 3 to August 3, 1962, under the presidency of Mr. Jerzy Michalowski (Poland).

Case concerning the Northern Cameroons (Cameroun v. United Kingdom): By an order of November 27, 1962, the International Court of Justice extended to March 1, 1963, the time limit for the filing of the observations and submissions of Cameroun on the preliminary objection raised by the United Kingdom in the Northern Cameroons case. By an order of January 11, 1963, the President of the Court extended to July 1, 1963, the time limit for the filing by the government of Cameroun of its observations and submissions on the preliminary objection raised by the United Kingdom in the Northern Cameroons case. The extensions were at the request of the government of Cameroun with the agreement of the United Kingdom government.

The eleventh session of the Conference of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAQ) was held in Rome on November 4–24, 1961, under the chairmanship of Mr. Georges Hraoui (Lebanon). The Conference had before it the Director-General's report, The State of Food and Agriculture 1961. The Conference endorsed the general analysis of the situation and outlook presented in this document. There was general agreement as to the importance of raising the level of international assistance for the economic development of less developed countries, and it was felt that increased use of available food surpluses should be made for that purpose. There was also general recognition of the desirability of establishing a multilateral approach both for emergency relief and for the use of food surpluses for economic development on an initial experimental scale. Due to high productivity and low expansion of demand in developed countries, substantial and possibly even increasing supplies of food would be generated for these purposes.

The sixth session of the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) Council—the sixteen-member governing body of the Organization—met on February 20–22, 1962, in London and considered various matters relating to the work program of the Organization, including arrangements for the forthcoming Oil Pollution Conference. In addition, the Council decided to set up a working group of experts to advise on ways and means of tackling the problem of facilitation of travel and transport in the maritime field.

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development announced on October 17, 1962, a loan of $22 million to Israel for highway construction and improvement. During the next four and onehalf years, about 512 inter-urban highways were to be built or reconstructed to higher standards to provide better communication with ports, to reduce traffic congestion and transport costs, and to improve traffic safety. About 155 miles of feeder and access roads, linking agricultural and other settlements to the main highway network, were also to be improved. The total cost of the road construction and improvements was estimated at $46 million; the Bank loan of $22 million was to cover the foreign exchange requirements of this work and also of related imported equipment and services. The loan was for a term of seventeen years, and amortization was to begin in January 1967.

The Assembly of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) held its fourteenth session in Rome from August 21 through September 15, 1962, under the presidency of Dr. E. Ortona (Italy). The Assembly adopted measures to assure that the development and use of supersonic civil aircraft would not be detrimental either to the public or to international civil aviation. The ICAO Council was to work toward international agreement on the operational characteristics of critical importance in insuring that supersonic aircraft could fit into the same environment as subsonic aircraft, and also on the problems of noise near airfields, sonic boom, and radiation hazards. A second object of Council concern would be the assessment of the operating requirements of the supersonic aircraft, so that international agreement could also be reached on the ground facilities and services required and the places where these would have to be installed.

The 46th session of the International Labor Conference took place in Geneva from June 6 through June 29, 1962, under the presidency of Mr. John Lynch (Minister for Industry and Commerce and government delegate of Ireland). According to Mr. David A. Morse, the Director-General, despite disputes, restlessness, impatience, and criticism, disagreement had been contained within the Organization's rules and procedures; and the Conference had reached a wide measure of agreement on important and controversial issues.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) entered into a stand-by arrangement with the government of Haiti authorizing drawings up to the amount of $6 million over the next twelve months in currencies held by the Fund. The stabilization efforts of the Haitian government in recent years, conducted with Fund support, had contributed to the maintenance of internal and external financial stability. However, unusual difficulty had been encountered during the fiscal year just closing, when government revenues fell short of amounts anticipated, the inflow of foreign aid dwindled, and Haiti's international reserve position deteriorated. Haitian authorities had taken steps to strengthen the country's public finances. The Fund had granted annual stand-by arrangements to Haiti since 1958; the country's net drawings amounted to $3.75 million.

The Executive Board of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) held its 61st session in Paris from May 7 to May 29, 1962, under the chairmanship of Dr. Mohamed Awad (United Arab Republic). The Executive Board heard the Acting Director General's oral report on the activities of UNESCO since December 1961 and then reviewed the Acting Director-General's proposals on the Emergency Program of Financial Aid to Member States and Associate Members in Africa. It recommended that the Acting Director-General examine the possibility of carrying out the project for the establishment of a center for the production of school textbooks in Ethiopia and authorized allocations of $100,000 each for assisting educational planning in Southern Rhodesia and the Ivory Coast. The Board renewed its appeal to member states to continue contributing the emergency program so that at least the present deficit of $750,000 would be covered. The Acting Director-General was invited to report to the twelfth General Conference of UNESCO, to meet from November 9 to December 12, 1962, on the Organization's activities within the framework of the civilian operations of the UN in the Congo.

The Management Council of the Consultative Committee for Postal Studies of the Universal Postal Union (UPU) held its annual session in Tokyo on October 2–22, 1961. In view of the proximity of the fifteenth Universal Postal Congress, which was to meet in 1963, the Council decided not to meet in 1962. The 1961 plenary meetings of the Council were preceded by meetings of 24 working groups, which discussed the technical, business, and economic problems of post office management.

On July 30, 1962, the government of Syria presented a formal complaint against alleged United Arab Republic interference in its internal affairs to Abdul Khaliq Hassouna, Secretary-General of the Arab League. The Secretary-General at Syria's request said he would start preparations for holding an extraordinary meeting of the League's Council to discuss the complaint, but it would take at least five days.

The ninth joint meeting of the European Parliament (formerly the European Parliamentary Assembly) and the Consultative Assembly of the Council of Europe was held in Strasbourg on September 17 and 18, 1962, under the joint presidency of Mr. Gaetano Martino, President of the European Parliament, and Mr. Per Federspiel, President of the Consultative Assembly. The debates were based on two reports, one presented by Mr. Edoardo Martino (Italian Christian Democrat), on behalf of the European Parliament, and the other by Mr. Georges Margue (Luxembourg Social Christian) for the Consultative Assembly. Mr. Martino, in speaking of the future of the European Economic Community (EEC), commented that the success of the negotiations with the United Kingdom would have a stabilizing effect on the whole of Europe. Mr. Margue, after paying tribute to the progress of EEC, stressed the importance of defense problems in connection with the development of Europe, and listed the most salient features of this question.

A colloquy between the European Parliament, the European Economic Community (EEC) Commission, and the EEC Council of Ministers took place on November 20 and 21, 1962. The first day of the colloquy was marked by an expression of divergent views on the future appearance of Europe by Mr. Ludwig Erhard, Vice-Chancellor and Economics Minister of West Germany, and Mr. Walter Hallstein, President of the EEC Commission. Mr. Erhard criticized certain points in the Commission's action program for the second transitional period of EEC, contending that too much stress had been laid on centralizing the Community's institutions and that proposed schemes for economic planning on a Community wide scale could do little good and might even be harmful. Stressing the diversit of the European nations, he stated his desire for a federal Europe where the various countries and peoples could live their own lives according to their own ideals.