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The Creation of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 May 2009

H. H. Krill de Capello
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The history of the creation of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) encompasses essentially two international conferences: the Conference of Ministers of Education of the Allied Governments and the French National Committee (CAME) which took pJace in London from 1942 through 1945 and the Conference of the United Nations for the Establishment of an International Organization for Education and Culture, held November 1–16, 1945. The latter conference, called jointly by the governments of France and the United King dom, was partially a result of the former and was also held in London. At this two-week conference UNESCO's constitution was drafted and adopted. In this development a part was played by the founding process of the United Nations whose Charter, adopted at the United Nations Conference on International Organization in San Francisco in June 1945, foresaw the advancement of international cooperation in culture and education. The founding conference of UNESCO considered itself the executor of this mandate. This article will show how the idea of international cultural cooperation was developed during the Second World War at the meetings of CAME, how it was modified by the United States aid policy toward Europe, how it was influenced by French traditions of intellectual cooperation manifested within the framework of the League of Nations, and how it led finally to the creation of a new specialized agency of the United Nations.

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International Organization , Volume 24 , Issue 1 , Winter 1970 , pp. 1 - 30
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Copyright © The IO Foundation 1970

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References

1 The first basic history of UNESCO was Opocensky's, Jan “The Beginning of UNESCO” (86 pages)Google Scholar which describes its development from the conference of allied ministers of education to the third session of the General Conference of UNESCO in Beirutin 1948. Opocensky's, second publication, “The Constitution of UNESCO” (190 pages)Google Scholar, analyzes the activities of the different constitutional commissions during the founding conference in London. Both texts were written in the 1948–1952 period, and they remain as unpublished manuscripts in the archives of UNESCO. Cowell's, F. R.“Planning the Organization of UNESCO 1942–1946, A Personal Record, journal of World History, 1966 (Vol. 10), pp. 210–256Google Scholar, provides an overall view of the various phases of UNESCO's development and of die personalities connected with it. The American studies by Laves, Walter H. C. and Thomson, Charles A., UNESCO Purpose, Progress, Prospects (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957)Google Scholar and by Shuster, George N., UNESCO, Assessment and Promise (New York: Harper & Row [for the Council on Foreign Relations], 1963)Google Scholar concentrate mainly on the program policy of the organization. The same applies to the leading French book, Thomas's, JeanU. N. E. S. C. O. (Paris: Editions Gallimard, 1962)Google Scholar. Sathyamurthy's, T. V.The Politics of International Co-operation: Contrasting Concepts of UNESCO (Travaux de droit, d'&onomie, de sociologie, et des sciences politiques) (Geneva: Librairie Droz, 1964)Google Scholar analyzes the different political and intellectual concepts of the member states vis-à-vis UNESCO's mandate up to 1962. The excellent Polish study of Kolosa, Jan, International Intellectual Cooperation (Travaux de la société des sciences et des lettres dc Wroclaw) (Wroclaw: Wroclawskie Towarzistwo Naukowe, 1962)Google Scholar, examines the League of Nations' experience and the beginnings of UNESCO.

2 Charter of the United Nations, chapter IX, article 55b.

3 Within this period CAME met every two months. Note that the 21st and last session took place after the founding conference of UNESCO.

4 The letter of invitation dated October 28, 1942, and signed by Sir Malcolm Robertson was sent, at the request of Butler and “after consultation with the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and with his approval”, to all “Ministers of Education of the Allied Governments and National Councils now in the United Kingdom”. A copy is preserved in the UNESCO archives.

5 Minutes of the conference's first session (hereafter cited as CAME I), pp. 1–2. (The minutes of the second session will be cited CAME II, etc.) Buder's intentions illustrate the plan sketched out in the letter of invitation to hold “periodic meetings” on educational problems.

6 Concerning educational and cultural aid provided by the British Council for refugees who had come to the United Kingdom from the European continent since 1939–1940 see mainly Seymour's, Richard “Developments in the United Kingdom during die Second World War Leading to the Practice of Collective Cultural Co-operation” (Unpublished manuscript prepared at the request of the Council of Europe, 1965)Google Scholar and Cowell, , Journal of World History, Vol. 10, p. 211Google Scholar.

7 CAME I, p. 2.

8 With reference to die letter of invitation dated October 28, 1942, Opocensky defines the purpose of die conference as one of exploring “plans for the formation of a permanent organization for Inter-Allied and subsequendy international co-operation in educational matters in the postwar period”; (Opocensky, , “The Constitution of UNESCO”, p. 1)Google Scholar. Opocensky erroneously took this passage from a document entitled “Originof die Conference” (CAME document AME/A/2Ia, p. 3) which had been discussed by the conference at its sixth session on October 5, 1943. Cowell accepted this version word for word in reference to the letter of invitation. See Cowell, , Journal of World History, Vol. 10, p. 211Google Scholar. The copy of the letter of invitation in die UNESCO archives contains no such remarks. In his letter of June I, 1967, to the author Lord Buder expressly denied die fact that die conference had been convened with the intention to create an international organization.

9 CAME document AME/A/2.

10 It was taken for granted that London which had occupied a leading position as a European center of intellectual and cultural liberty would retain its privileged position after the war. In this context should be seen the organization of the British Council, generally considered as exemplary in relation to cultural exchanges. CAME documents AME/A/4,5,6.

11 Norway, the United Kingdom, and Yugoslavia. Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Poland agreed later. CAME V (July 27, 1943), p. 2. The report of the cultural commission was completed in 1944.

12 The book commission set up in 1943 elaborated plans for the supply ofbooks to schools and universities as well as recommendations for translations of foreign research literature. With regard to the intensification of the international book trade it underlined in its final report die model structure and methods of work of the German “Börsenverein”. A subcommittee of the book commission suggested reforms in relation to the unbiased teaching of history. The commission had before it a brief by Paul Sweet on the subject of Central Europe in German historiography in which works by Hans Rothfels, Franz Schnabel, and Heinrich Ritter von Srbik were clearly set aside from the rest of nationalistic literature (CAME document AME/B/34). A good overall view concerning die activities of the book commission canbe found in Seymour. It was the task of the science commission, set up in July 1943, to make aninventory of research centers destroyed in the occupied European countries and to elaborate proposals for aid. Another commission examined the application of modern information media (film, radio) to education. Other commissions dealt with the protection of stolen cultural property as well as with the complex problem of intellectual and educational denazification.

13 Following de Gaulle's return to Paris in 1944 the designation “French National Commitee” was replaced by “French Provisional government” after CAME's thirteenth session on Septemper 13, 1944, France was listed among the participating nations as either “Fighting France” or “France”.

14 Opocensky, , “The Constitution of UNESCO”, p. 2Google Scholar.

15 “Education and the United Nations” (Report of a joint commission of the London International Assembly and the Council for Education in World Citizenship) (London and Washington: 1943)Google Scholar. The joint commission was set up in 1941. See Laves and Thomson, p. 19 and p. 363, footnote 40.

16 The following persons were members of this committee set up at the fourth session on March 15: Juraj Slavik (Czechoslovakia), Jules Hoste (Belgium), and Paul Vaucher (France). As a “select committee” it was later enlarged by adding Parkinson (British Council), W. R. Richardson (UK Board of Education), D. V. Le Pan (Canada), Commander Herbert Agar (United States), Gustave Bolkestein (Netherlands), Alf Sommerfelt (Norway), and Stephan Glaser (Poland)

17 CAME V, pp. 5–6.

18 The select committee recommended that the conference, by setting up anexecutive bureau, should manifest the continuity of its work and

thus make clear its intention to assume the responsibility of a programme of reconstruction and,

at the same time, to preparethe way for the subsequent setting up of an inter-allied organization

entrusted with post-war problems. CAME document AME/A/20a, p. I.

19 “Report on the Re-organization of the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education”, CAME document AME/A/20a.

20 In addition to the five permanent members of the Security Council—China, France, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, United States—which each sent one delegate to the bureau four other groups were represented with one delegate: Western Europe, EasternEurope, British Commonwealth, and Central and South America. (CAME document AME/A/20a, p. 3.)

21 CAME VI, p. 3.

22 CAME document AME/A/20a, p. 2, paragraph 2.

23 CAME document AME/A/21a. This report was intended for public information.

24 The Conference has formed the view that in its establishment and organization lies the germ ofafuture international organization for education and it deems to be one of its duties to consider upon what practical lines such an organization can be formed and made to function in the postwar period.

(CAME document AME/A/21a, p. 1.) See also footnote 8 above.

25 René Cassin, professor of jurisprudence at the Sorbonne, was as“commissaire national à la justice et a l'instruction publique” one of de Gaulle's closest and most important collaborators in London. Coauthor of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Nobel Peace Prize winner in 1968, he has been the president of the European Court for Human Rights in Strasbourg since 1965. Concerning his activities in London and Algiers see, in addition to de Gaulle's, CharlesMémoires de Guerre (3 vols; Paris: Librairie Plou, 1956)Google Scholar and Richel's, HenriHistoire de la France libre (Paris: Presse universitaire de la France, 1963)Google Scholar, Ghebali's, Victor-Yves “La France en guerre et les organisations Internationales 1939–1945” (Dissertation, Faculty of Law and Economics, Grenoble University, 02 1967)Google Scholar, unpublished manuscript in the UNESCO archives.

26 CAME VIII, p. 5.

27 Vaucher was professor of literature at the Sorbonne.

28 Alf Sommerfelt, a close collaborator of Norwegian Minister of Education Nils Hjelmtveit, was later a member of UNESCO's Executive Board.

29 Stephan Glaser was professor of criminal law at the University of Wilno; minister plenipotentiary of the Polish government-in-exile to the governments-in-exile of Belgium and Luxembourg in London; founder and first president of the International Associationof University Professors and Lecturers, London, May 1942.

30 The first plan was adopted in Harper's Ferry, Virginia, in September 1943 by the Liaison Committee for International Education under the chairmanship of G. Kefauver. The second draft was prepared by the United States Committee of Educational Reconstruction (New York, 1943). The third plan was elaborated by the London International Assembly in 1943. “Plans for the Creation of an Inter-Allied Bureau for Education,” CAME document AME/A/48. Details of these plans in Opocensky, , “Constitution,” pp. 4–5Google Scholar.

31 CAME VI, pp. 3–4.

32 The agreement on the creation of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) was signed during this conference.

33 Russell, Ruth B., with the assistance of Muther, Jeannette E., A History of the United Nations Charter, The Role of the United States, 1940–1945 (Washington: The Brookings Institution, 1958)Google Scholar.

34 See both reports on the reorganization and the origins of the conference, CAME documents AME/A/20 and AME/A/20a.

35 Butler first requested observer nations to state their attitude, thusfacilitating his task. (CAME VI, p. 3.)

36 “The question of setting up a United Nations Bureau was one in which the United States Government would have a very strong interest”. Ibid.

37 Cowell, , Journal of World History, Vol. 10, p. 217, footnote 1Google Scholar.

38 CAME IX (April 6, 1944), p. 2.

39 Ibid., p. 3.

40 “Suggestions for the Development of the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education into the United Nations Organization for Educational and Cultural Reconstruction” (Working paper for the first open meeting, UNESCO archives). Opocensky's assumption that the United States delegation had submitted two memoranda is based on confusion with the draft constitution elaborated later (CAME document AME/A/53). See Opocensky, , “Constitution”, pp. 9–10Google Scholar.

41 Article 38 of the ILO constitution foresees the creation of “regional agencies” as well as regional conferences.

42 Monsignor Z. Kaczyinski, minister of education and religious questions in the Polish government-in-exile in London.

43 Draft report, first open meeting (April 12, 1944), p. 3.

44 On May 18, 1943, at the “Food and Agriculture Conference”held in Hot Springs, Virginia, preparatory work was carried out in connection with a draft constitution for FAO which was later adopted at die founding conference in Quebec on October 16, 1945. Articles VI and X of the FAO constitution foresee the convening of regional conferences as well as the creation of regional offices.

45 In addition to Fulbright the following were members: Stephan Glaser (Poland), Jules Hoste (Belgium), W. R. Richardson (United Kingdom), Alf Sommerfelt (Norway), T.D. Tsien (China), and Paul Vaucher (France). The meeting took place on April 16 at Claridge's Hotel, seat of the American delegation.

46 “Proposed Constitution for a United Nations Organization for Educational and Cultural Reconstruction”, CAME document AME/A/53.

47 The first paragraph of the preamble reads as follows:

The cold-blooded and considered destruction by the Fascist Governments of die cultural resources of great parts of the continents of Europe and Asia; the murder of teachers, artists, scientists and intellectual leaders; the burning of books; the pillaging and mutilation of works of art, the rifling of archives and the theft of scientific apparatus, have created conditions dangerous to civilization, and, therefore, to peace, not only in the countries and continents ravaged by the Fascist powers, but throughout the entire world. To deprive any part of the inter-dependent modern world of the cultural resources, human and material, through which its children are trained and its people informed, is to destroy to that extent the common knowledge and the mutual understanding upon which the peace of the world and its security must rest….

(CAME document AME/A/53.)

48 The thirteen “associated” countries were: Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Egypt, France (de Gaulle's Committee of National Liberation), Iceland, Ireland, Liberia, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela. See Russell and Muther, p. 67, footnote 13.

49 CAME X, p. 2ff.

50 CAME XVI (March 7, 1945) and XVII (April 11, 1945).

51 Declaration by Kefauver, CAME XVII, p. 4.

52 The view was held in some quarters (!) that the constitution should beredrafted on a more permanent basis, and if this proved also to be the view of the San Francisco Conference, the Chairman thought it would be wise for the Conference to adhere to that view.

(CAME XVI, p. 2.)

53 Ibid., p. 3.

54 CAME XVII, pp. 2–4.

55 Ibid., p. 4.

56 Among its members were Pozzo di Borgo, inspecteur des finances, and M. Henraux, président de la convention nationale pour la restitution.

57 The institute was closed during the German occupation. Attempts to continue intellectual cooperation during the Second World War were made by the Cuban government.See Pham-Thi-Tu, La Cooperation intellectuelle sous la Société des Nations (Geneva: Librairie Droz, 1964)Google Scholar. Also Bonnet, Henri, “La Société des Nations et la coopération intellectuelle”, Journal of World History, 1966, Vol. 10, pp. 198–209Google Scholar.

58 CAME document AME/A/48.

59 CAME IX, pp. 6–7.

60 Declarations by the French delegates, Vaucher (CAME IX), Pozzo di Borgo (CAME XVIII, May 16, 1945), and Henri Laugier (CAME XIX, July 12, 1945).

61 “Drafting committee to consider the comments made on the tentative draft constitution and the possible relations between the proposed UN organization, the International Institute for Intellectual Cooperation, and the International Bureau of Education”. See CAME XV (January 10, 1945).

62 Gilbert Murray provides an overall view on ideas, aims, organization, and programs accomplished by the League of Nation's organs for intellectual cooperation. (CAME document AME/E/2.)

63 Ghebali, pp. 181–183. When Bonnet was appointed ambassador to Washington, Jean Jacques Mayou became the new director of the institute. See also Cassin, René, “Il y a vingt ans: La naissance de PUNESCO”, Le Monde, 11 2, 1966, p. 8Google Scholar.

64 Russell and Muther, p. 625. “Il ne nous convenait pas, en effet, de recommander à 51 nations de souscrire à des articles redigés en dehors de nous”. (De Gaulle, , Vol. 3, p. 200.)Google Scholar

65 The universal aim of the United Nations corresponds to the “génie français.” (Ibid.)

66 Paul Valéry was for a long period president of the committee of arts and letters of the League of Nations' Committee for Intellectual Cooperation.

67 Cassin, Le Monde.

68 Ibid.

69 Henri Laugier, professor of physiology at the Sorbonne, was director of the cultural division in the French ministry of foreign affairs from 1943 to 1944 and assistant secretary-general for social affairs of the United Nations from 1946 to 1951.

70 CAME document AME/A/109, communicated to the member states atthe beginning of October 1945 as a CAME draft.

71 These articles provide for the creation of several specialized agencies for health, culture, education, etc., to be associated through agreements with the United Nations.

72 In respect of the following see CAME XIX, pp. 2–4.

73 Russell and Muther, p. 633.

74 In its new version CAME Resolution I reads as follows:

that this Conference welcomes the inclusion of educational and cultural co-operation which has formed the subject of its activities since 1942 within the scope of the Charter of the United Nations and the declaration on this subject submitted by the French Government at San Francisco and unanimouslyadopted, and notes with satisfaction the provision of article 57…

Hereafter follows, also at the request of Laugier, the text of this article. (CAME XIX, p. 3.)

75 According to the opinion of the French government

it would not be in accordance with the international spirit of the Conference for the invitations to be issued by the British Government, which might lead other Governments to call similar conferences elsewhere.

CAME XIX, p. 3.

76 In July 1945 Butler became minister of labor. He was succeeded as minister of education until the fall of the Churchill government by his colleague, Richard Law.

77 The Soviet Union allowed it to be known that in its opinion this UN founding conference should not be convened by the government of a member state, but rather by the Economic and Social Council. See Cowell, , Journal of World History, Vol. 10, p. 224Google Scholar. For details of the Soviet attitude see Sathyamurthy, p. 163.

78 Cassin, Le Monde.

79 The French tide was “organisation des Nations Unies pour l'education et la culture”. CAME XIX, P. 4.

80 The full proceedings are contained in a volume “Conference for the establishment of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization”, London, 1946, document ECO/Conf.29, The French edition is called “Conference en vue d'une Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'Education, la Science et la Culture”. The title UNESCO used at that time was chosen retroactively after the creation of the organization. Hereafter the English edition of the plenary sessions will be cited ECO/Conf; the French edition will be cited ECO/Conf.F.

81 Cowell, , Journal of World History, Vol. 10, p. 223Google Scholar.

82 Represented by Major Gerald Abraham.

83 The International Bureau of Education was established in 1925 as an international private institute and was transformed in 1929 into an intergovernmental organization.Concerning the historic founding process see Rossello, P., Les précurseurs du Bureau international de l'Education, un aspect iné dit de l'histoire de l'éducation et des institutions internationales (Geneva: International Bureau of Education, 1943), p. 214Google Scholar.

84 The Organization of American States was founded on April 14, 1890, with the title of “International Union of American Republics”.

85 Attlee referred to a new world order to be created. MacLeish pointed to the alternative “to live together … or not to live”. ECO/Conf., pp. 20–21.

86 See the statement by the head of the United States delegation, MacLeish, in ECO/Conf., p. 20.

87 Jean Thomas, inspecteur général au ministere de l'èducation nationale, author of a book on UNESCO and of several literary essays, was a member of the UNESCO Secretariat as director of the cultural division from 1947 to 1960 and later as assistant director-general. In 1946 he called René Maheu, the present director-general of the organization, into the Preparatory Commission and later into the Secretariat.

88 Julien Cain, former director-general of all French libraries, Was a member of the executive committee of the International Institute for Intellectual Cooperation from 1932 to 1940. During the German occupation Cain participated in the French resistance movement. He became French delegate to the Preparatory Commission as well as to several sessions of UNESCO's General Conference; from 1958 to 1966 he was a member of UNESCO's Executive Board.

89 Ibid. Preface to René Maheu, La civilisation de l'universel: Inventaire de l'avenir (Paris: Editions Gonthier, 1966), pp. 16–17.

90 Declaration by Ellen Wilkinson, ECO/Conf., p. 3.

91 Ibid., p. 20.

92 William Benton, founder of the publicity agency Benton and Bowlers, was assistant secretary of state for information from 1945 to 1947; senator representing Connecticut 1949–1953; member of UNESCO Executive Board 1963–1968. Benton took a considerable part in programming the American intentions vis-à-vis UNESCO with special regard to the use of mass media.

93 Alf Sommerfelt (Norway) and Jan Opocensky (Czechoslovakia) represented their respective countries for some time on the Executive Board. Following the fall of the Czechoslovak Eduard Benes government in 1949 Opocensky retired voluntarily and became head of UNESCO's archives. Jaime Torres Bodet, minister of education of Mexico, was UNESCO's second director-general (1948–1952). A member of the United States delegation, Luther H. Evans, succeeded him as director-general (1953–1958). The French ambassador to the United Nations, Roger Seydoux, was at that time conseiller technique to the French delegation.

94 ECO/Conf., pp. 21–22.

95 For the origins of this conference see Cowell, , Journal of World History, Vol. 10, p. 225Google Scholar.

96 Blum referred to a statement made by Field Marshal J. C. Smuts in SanFrancisco (ECO/Conf.F, P. 4).

97 Wilkinson, ECO/Conf., p. 23.

98 Attlee, ibid., p. 22. The application of these principles was described by the delegate from the Nedierlands who stressed the fact that his country, as well as any odier country under German domination, had “spent five years in prison”. (Ibid., p. 50.)

99 On July 6, 1945, the United Kingdom and the United States finally recognized the Polish Lublin government, completed by members of the Polish government-in-exile and represented at the London founding conference of UNESCO by a delegation under the leadership of its minister of education, Czeslaw Wycech. See The Statesman's Year-Book, Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1956, ed. by Steinberg, S. H. (London: Macmillan & Co., 1956), p. 1337CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

100 Wilkinson, ECO/Conf., p. 23.

101 ECO/Conf. F, p. 106, also Buisseret (Belgium), ECO/Conf.F, p.100.

102 Attlee, ECO/Conf., p. 22.

103 Torres Bodet, ECO/Conf. F, p. 50. Concerning the problems of the League of Nations see works by Pham-Thi-Tu and Bonnet cited in footnote 57 above.

104 Bodet, ECO/Conf. F, p. 50, and in particular the Indian delegate, ECO/Conf., p. 33.

105 Blum and especially Bodet, ECO/Conf.F, p. 50.

106 Ibid., p. 41.

107 MacLeish, ibid; Attlee, ECO/Conf., p. 22.

108 In particular, this goal was embodied by delegates of multinational states, e. g., Canada, India, South Africa, and Yugoslavia; ECO/Conf., pp. 33, 44, 59, etc.; similarly, Blum, ECO/Conf.F., p. 40.

109 Bodet, ECO/Conf., p. 39.

110 ECO/Conf., p. 40.

111 Ibid., p. 49.

112 ECO/Conf., p. 24.

113 ECO/Conf., p. 85.

114 Attlee, ECO/Conf., p. 31; also oriental and Latin American delegates.

115 Ibid., pp. 40–41.

116 Hjelmtveit, ibid., p. 54.

117 Delegate from Colombia, ibid., p. 30.

118 This conception was presented by Bodet, Blum, and Hjelmtveit.

119 Draft proposals for an educational and cultural organization of the United Nations, ECO/Conf., pp. 1–5.

120 ECO/Conf. F, pp. 11–15.

121 Considérant que la guerre mondiale où la civilisation et l'humanité ont falli périr a été rendue possible par l'abandon des idées démocratiques et un déchaînement d'ideologies exaltant la violenceet proclamant l'inégalité les races, et qu'il est du devoir des Nations Unies de faire triompher dans le monde entier les principes de liberté, d'égalité et de fraternité qui sont à la base de leur Charte….

(Preamble, ibid., p. 11.)

122 Cassin, Le Monde.

123 Complete list of members in Pham-Thi-Tu, pp. 258–260. “l'Institut eut Iargement recours aux représentants les plus qualifiés et les plus illustres, dans nos pays, de la création intellectuelle”. Bonnet, , p. 202Google Scholar. Bonnet was considered as representing this basic principle during the discussions relating to the creation of UNESCO.

124 The agreement “Acte international concernant la coopération intellectuelle”, signed by Bonnet and Herriot on December 31, 1938, and transmittedto member states, foresaw the creation of an intergovernmental organization, but stressed the collaboration of national commissions as nongovernmental bodies in intellectual cooperation. Text in Bonnet, p. 246.

125 The ILO constitution, adopted in 1919 and modified several times, foresees the representation of member governments, employers' organizations, and trade unions.

126 Chapter III, article 4, and Chapter VI, article 20, of the French draft constitution.

127 With the restriction “dans la mesure oú elle s'approche de l'art ‘… ”. ECO/Conf. F, p. 41.

128 Ibid. During his address given at the fourteenth sessionof the General Conference when UNESCO was celebrating its twentieth anniversary President deGaulle presented arguments in a similar but politically oriented manner.

Qu'en outre, la capitale de mon pays a été choisie comme siège de votre noble et fraternelle instance. Mais, pardessus tout, ce qui inspire à la France uneexceptionnelle sympathie pour vos travaux et pour vos actes, c'est qu'éls ontpour raison d'etre de servir 1'unité humaine, ce qui répond essentiellement à sa propre vocation. Car, s'il est vrai qu'elle a, de tous temps, labouré avec passion le champ de l'intelligence et offert à la terre entiére d'assez precieuses récoltes, s'il est vrai qu'elle met à la disposition du monde une langue adaptée par excellence au caractére universel dela pensée, il l'est aussi que le but que vise sa politique, et qui n'est rienque l'unité— nationale, européenne, mondiale—est en conformité profonde avec celui que poursuit votre organisation à l'echelle de l'humanité.

(Vingtiéme anniversaire de l'organisation: Discours et messages [Paris: UNESCO, 1966] p. 24.)

129 The seat of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization shall be in Paris. This resolution shall not in any way affect the right of the General Conference to take decisions in regard to this matter by a two-thirds majority.

ECO/Conf., p. 90.

130 This resolution, adopted by acclamation, also mentions Cuba's merits in respect of the continuation of intellectual cooperation in Latin America. ECO/Conf., p.89.

131 “Londres, par son magnifique example de courage et de tenacité, a ranimé dans nos coeurs abattus l'esprit de résistance et la foi dans le triomphe final des forces démocratiques”. Delegate from Luxembourg, ECO/Conf.F, p. 68.

132 ECO/Conf., p. 56. For the attitude of Switzerland see Ehni, Reinhart, Die Schweiz und die Vereinten Nationen von 1944–1947 (Tübingen Studien zur Geschichte und Politik, No. 21) (Tübingen: Universitätsverlag, 1967), p. 115Google Scholar. Under the terms of an agreement concluded between UNESCO and the International Bureau of Education in 1968 the latter was integrated into UNESCO as a Center for Comparative Education.

133 “Consideration on the Organisation's Twentieth Anniversary of UNESCO's Contribution to Peace”, I4C/Res. 10 (November-December 1966).

134 See Bonnet, , Journal of World History, Vol. 10, p. 202Google Scholar.

135 Article XI of the constitution authorizes the director-general to “make suitable arrangements for consultation and cooperation with non-governmental international organisations… ”.

136 First Commission, Summary Records, ECO/Conf., pp. 99–100.

137 In addition to the original French title supported by the Latin American countries India suggested “Intellectual Organization of the United Nations” as a compromise. (Ibid.)

138 “Instrument Establishing a Preparatory Educational, Scientificand Cultural Commission”, ECO/Conf., p. 97.

139 Article 2(d) of the “Instrument”, ibid., p.98.

140 It was underlined that the “Instrument” which set up thePreparatory Commission was to be considered as an element of the final act of the conference. Several governments later appointed delegates. See Preparatory Commission, records of plenary meetings, UNESCO archives.

141 Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Colombia, France, Greece, India, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, United Kingdom, United States. Preparatory Commission I (November 16, 1945), p. 13.

142 Cowell, , Journal of World History, Vol. 10, p. 227. The Soviet Union joined UNESCO as late as 1954. For the Soviet attitudetoward the Preparatory Commission which coincides with the above reasons for the rejection of the British invitation to the founding conference see Sathyamurthy, pp. 163ffGoogle Scholar.

143 Between 1926 and 1930 Zimmern was deputy director of the Paris International Institute for Intellectual Cooperation and later professor of international relationsin Geneva. For a character study of Zimmern see Cowell, , Journal of World History, Vol. 10, pp. 229–230Google Scholar.

144 This work is indelibly linked to UNESCO's intellectual development. A detailed analysis appears in Samyamurthy. See also Melanie Staerk, “20 Jahre UNESCO—Sir Julian Huxley's Entwurf von 1946”, Netie Züricher Zeitting, October 14, 1966 (No. 284), p. 2. Staerk's opinion that Huxley's concept of a universal civilization developed with the help of UNESCO is confirmed by the program policy of die organization.

145 The Hotel Majestic, built in 1865 by Count Alexander Basilewski and later occupied by Queen Isabella II of Spain (at that time its title was changed to “Palais de Castille”) was the seat of the German—and later American—military administration during the Second World War.

146 René Maheu, “Address on the Occasion of the Twentieth Anniversary of UNESCO”, in Vingtième anniversaire de l'organisation: Discours et messages, p. II. See also J. Thomas, pp. 24ff., and Pharm-Thi-Tu, pp. 252ff.

147 The “Declaration of the Principles of International Cultural Cooperation” (I4C/Res. 8. I) adopted by the fourteenth session of the General Conference on November 4, 1966, can be considered historically as the universal realization of the ideas of historism, described by Friedrich Meinecke, which formed the basis of all internationalcooperation. See F. Meinecke, Die Entstehung des Hutorismus, Vol. Ill (Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 1959), especially chapters on Herder and Goethe.

148 Bonnet, pp. 202ff.

149 See Pham-Thi-Tu, pp. 245–252.

150 In this context should be seen the international team of experts sen

151 Also René Maheu: Ainsi, il faut bien comprendre que la justification profonde de la cooperation intellectucllc, c'cst, bien plus que son utilité intrinsèque, la prise de conscience qu'elle favorise de la solidarité intellectuelle et morale de l'humanité et son organisation progressive en une force contrelaquelle finalement les instincts d'antagonisme et de violence ne pourront prévaloir”.

(Maheu, p. 272.)