Published online by Cambridge University Press: 18 April 2017
This essay considers the biomedical framing of labor in tropical Australia from the late-nineteenth century until the early twenty-first century. This entails critical inquiry into racialized estimates of labor capacity or fitness, as well as skeptical examination of medical assumptions of risk and danger. Racial theories and medical conjectures have constituted flexible analytic toolkits that might adjust, adapt, and justify a variety of exploitative labor practices in Australia’s tropical north. Debates about coolie or indentured labor were never simply economic calculations: They also concerned notions of races and their proper places, and expressed particular moral sensibilities and medical fears. Thus labor history becomes entangled with histories of racial formation and of science and medicine
1. Hingston, James, “A Coming Citizen of the World”, Victorian Review 1 (1879): 76–93 Google Scholar, 91.”
2. Dale, R.W., “Impressions of Australia. II: Speculations about the Future”, Contemporary Review 54 (1888): 836–60Google Scholar, 839.
3. Bedford, Randolph, Explorations in Civilization (Sydney, c. 1914), 8–9 Google Scholar. See also his “White, Yellow and Brown”, Lone Hand 9 (1911): 224–48Google Scholar. Bedford also wrote a hyperbolic play, White Australia, or the Empty North (1909).
4. Lake, Marilyn and Reynolds, Henry, Drawing the Global Colour Line (Melbourne, 2008)Google Scholar.
5. Corris, Peter, Passage, Port and Plantation: A History of the Solomon Islands Labour Migration, 1870–1914 (Melbourne, 1973)Google Scholar; Shineberg, Dorothy, The People Trade: Pacific Island Laborers and New Caledonia (Honolulu, 1999)Google Scholar; and Banivanua-Mar, Tracey, Violence and Colonial Dialogue: The Australian-Pacific Labor Trade (Honolulu, 2007)Google Scholar. While the Pacific Islanders Act 1901 stipulated the deportation of all Islanders by 1906, many remained: See Moore, Clive, Kanaka: A History of Melanesian Mackay (Port Moresby, 1985)Google Scholar. Indentured labor continued in the pearling industry until the 1970s: See Ganter, Regina, The Pearl-Shellers of the Torres Strait: Resource Use, Development and Decline, 1860s-1960s (Melbourne, 1994)Google Scholar; and Martínez, Julia and Vickers, Adrian, The Pearl Frontier: Indonesian Labor and Indigenous Encounters in Australia's Northern Trading Network (Honolulu, 2015)Google Scholar.
6. Markus, Andrew, Governing Savages (Sydney, 1990)Google Scholar; and McGrath, Ann, “‘Modern Stone-Age Slavery’: Images of Aboriginal Labour and Sexuality”, Labour History 69 (1995): 30–51 Google Scholar.
7. Anderson, Warwick, The Cultivation of Whiteness: Science, Health, and Racial Destiny in Australia (Durham, NC, 2006 [2002])Google Scholar, and “Traveling White” in Reorienting Whiteness, ed. Boucher, Leigh, Ellinghaus, Katherine, and Carey, Jane (London, 2009), 65–72 Google Scholar.
8. Bean, C.E.W., The Dreadnought of the Darling (London, 1911), 318 Google Scholar.
9. “Our North, Our Future: Australian Government White Paper on Developing Northern Australia,” June 18, 2015. apo.org.au/files/Resource/northern_australia_white_paper.pdf (accessed June 25, 2015), 70.
10. Dwight, Alan, “The Use of Indian Labourers in New South Wales”, Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society 62 (1976): 114–35Google Scholar; Ohlsson, Tony, “The Origins of a White Australia: The Coolie Question, 1837–1843”, Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society 97 (2011): 203–219 Google Scholar; and Cullen, Rose, “Empire, Indian Indentured Labor and the Colony: The Debate over ‘Coolie’ Labor in New South Wales, 1836–1838”, History Australia 9 (2012): 84–109 Google Scholar. For later efforts to bring in Eurasian labor, see Ohlsson, Tony, “‘Better than Nothing’: Eurasian Labour in New South Wales, 1853–54”, Labour History 105 (2013): 153–70Google Scholar.
11. Bolton, G.A., A Thousand Miles Away: A History of North Queensland to 1920 (Brisbane, 1963)Google Scholar; Evans, Raymond, Saunders, Kay, and Cronin, Kathryn, Exclusion, Exploitation and Extermination: Race Relations in Colonial Queensland (Sydney, 1975)Google Scholar; Saunders, Kay, Workers in Bondage: The Origins of Unfree Labour in Queensland, 1824–1916 (St Lucia, 1982)Google Scholar; Broeze, Frank, “Australia, Asia and the Pacific: The Maritime World of Robert Towns, 1843–1873”, Australian Historical Studies 24 (1990): 21–38 Google Scholar; and Reynolds, Henry, ed., Race Relations in North Queensland (Townsville, 1993)Google Scholar.
12. Saunders, Kay, “Masters and Servants: The Queensland Sugar Workers' Strike 1911”, in Who are our Enemies? Racism and the Australian Working Class, ed. Curthoys, Ann and Markus, Andrew (Neutral Bay, NSW, 1978), 96–111 Google Scholar, 98.
13. Anderson, Cultivation of Whiteness, chapter 3. See also Anderson, Warwick, “Immunities of Empire: Race, Disease and the New Tropical Medicine”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine 70 (1996): 94–118 Google Scholar.
14. Sowden, William J., The Northern Territory as It Is: A Narrative of the South Australian Parliamentary Party's Trip (Adelaide, 1882), 146–47Google Scholar.
15. O'Doherty, Kevin, Queensland Parliamentary Debates 40 (1884): 52 Google Scholar, quoted in Patrick, Ross, A History of Health and Medicine in Queensland 1824–1960 (St Lucia, 1987), 360 Google Scholar. See also Woolcock, Helen, “‘Our Salubrious Climate’: Attitudes to Health in Colonial Queensland”, in Disease, Medicine and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion, ed. MacLeod, Roy and Lewis, Milton (London, 1988), 176–93Google Scholar.
16. Black, Hume, Queensland Parliamentary Debates 47 (1885): 847 Google Scholar, quoted in Patrick, History of Health and Medicine in Queensland, 360.
17. Ahearne, Joseph, “Presidential Address, North Queensland Medical Society”, Australasian Medical Gazette 9 (1890): 292–95, 293Google Scholar.
18. Nisbet, Walter B., “Discussion”, Transactions of the Australasian Medical Congress, 9th session, Sydney, 1911 (Sydney, 1913), vol. 1, 533Google Scholar.
19. Pockley, F. Antill, “Presidential Address”, Australasian Medical Gazette 30 (1911), 491 Google Scholar.
20. Bonwick, James, Climate and Health in Australasia: Queensland (London, 1886), 41, 42Google Scholar.
21. “Bystander's Notebook”, The Boomerang [Brisbane], (May 12, 1888), 3 Google Scholar, and March 24, 1888, 3 (original emphasis), and May 19, 1888, 14. “Bystander” was the nom de plume of racial journalist and trade unionist William Lane.
22. “Queenslander,” “Coloured Labor and Queensland Sugar”, Sydney Quarterly Magazine 2 (1885): 339–44, 343Google Scholar.
23. J. Ahearne, “The Australian in the Tropics,” Red Page, Bulletin, September 29, 1900.
24. A.G. Stephens, “The Australian in the Tropics,” Red Page, Bulletin, October 13, 1900.
25. J.S.C. Elkington, “The Australian in the Tropics,” Red Page, Bulletin, October 3, 1900. Known for his overbearing presence, Elkington later became director of tropical hygiene in the federal health department.
26. “Mitty from Mackay,” “The Australian in the Tropics,” Red Page, Bulletin, November 24, 1900.
27. S.J. Richards, “The Australian in the Tropics,” Red Page, Bulletin, December 29, 1900. Richards was to die at Gallipoli.
28. Anderson, Cultivation of Whiteness, Ch. 4.
29. Elkington, J.S.C., Tropical Australia: Is it Suitable for a Working White Race? (Melbourne, 1905), 6 Google Scholar.
30. Breinl, Anton quoted in Anon., “British Medical Association News”, Australasian Medical Gazette 20 (1911): 88 Google Scholar.
31. Breinl, Anton, “The Influence of Climate, Diseases and Surroundings on the White Race Living in the Tropics”, in Therapeutics, Dietetics and Hygiene, vol. 2, ed. Springthorpe, J.W. (Melbourne, 1914)Google Scholar, and “Influence of Climate, Disease and Surroundings on the White Race Living in the Tropics”, Medical Journal of Australia 1 (1915): 595–600 Google Scholar.
32. Breinl, Anton, “The Object and Scope of Tropical Medicine in Australia”, Transactions of the Australasian Medical Congress, 9th session, Sydney 1911 (Sydney, 1913), vol. 1, 524–35Google Scholar, 525, 526.
33. Daneš, J.V., “Notes on the Suitability of Tropical Australia for the White Races”, Journal & Proceedings Royal Society of NSW 44 (1910): 416–19Google Scholar, 417. Daneš visited North Queensland in 1909–10; later he wrote on the “extinction” of Aborigines.
34. “Tropical Australia,” Transactions of the Australasian Medical Congress, 11th session, Brisbane 1920 (Brisbane, 1921), 41–69, 45.
35. J.H.L. Cumpston, “Tropical Australia: Discussion,” Transactions of the 1920 Australasian Medical Congress, 49. See also his “Presidential Address: Public Health and State Medicine,” Transactions of the 1920 Australasian Medical Congress, 77–87.
36. W.A. Osborne, “Physiological Factors in the Development of an Australian Race,” Transactions of the 1920 Australasian Medical Congress, 71–82, 72.
37. R.W. Cilento, The White Man in the Tropics, with Especial Reference to Australia and its Dependencies. Department of Health Service Publication No. 7 (Melbourne, c. 1925), 5, 50, 57. Cilento assumed Aboriginal “natives” would die out, though he later acknowledged his Aboriginal grandchild, the son of poet Oodgeroo Noonuccal (Kath Walker).
38. Cilento, Sir Raphael and Lack, Clem, Triumph in the Tropics: An Historical Sketch of Queensland (Fortitude Valley, 1959), 421 Google Scholar.
39. Cilento, Sir Raphael, Australia's Racial Heritage: A Brief Insight (Fitzroy, c. 1971), 6 Google Scholar. On Jewish conspiracies, see p. 11. Devoted to Benito Mussolini, Cilento narrowly escaped internment in World War Two.
40. Tavan, Gwenda, The Long, Slow Death of White Australia (Carlton, 2005)Google Scholar.
41. Anon., “Hanson Turns on ‘Diseased’ Africans,” Sydney Morning Herald, December 6, 2006. Hanson would have read Triumph in the Tropics as a child since it was set as a school textbook in Queensland.
42. A white paper is a government report conveying information on an issue and proposing policies.
43. Our North, Our Future, 7. See Brady, E.J., Australia Unlimited (Melbourne, c. 1918)Google Scholar. A literary nationalist, Brady was another friend of Elkington.
44. For DAMA, see http://www.australiasnorthernterritory.com.au/Working/bsm/employer-nominated/dama/Pages/default.aspx (accessed October 5, 2016); for the SWP, see https://www.employment.gov.au/seasonal-worker-programme (accessed October 5, 2016); and for ChAFTA, see http://dfat.gov.au/trade/agreements/chafta/official-documents/Pages/official-documents.aspx (accessed October 5, 2016).
45. Our North, Our Future, 70.
46. Norris, W. Perrin, “Report on Quarantine in Other Countries and on the Quarantine Requirements of Australia”, Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia (No. 28) 1912, 32 Google Scholar.
47. Cumpston, J.H.L., Quarantine: Australian Maritime Quarantine and the Evolution of International Agreements Concerning Quarantine. Quarantine Service Publication No. 2 (Melbourne, 1913), 12 Google Scholar.
48. “$15.4 million to support tropical research under Northern Australia growth plan.” Media release, May 10, 2015, http://trademinister.gov.au/releases/Pages/2015/ar_mr_150510.aspx (accessed June 25, 2015).
49. Our North, Our Future, 69.
50. Schofield quoted in James Cook University, “Research,” May 15, 2015, http://www.jcu.edu.au/research/JCU_147417.html (accessed June 25, 2015).
51. Ackerknecht, Erwin H., “Anticontagionism between 1821 and 1867”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine 22 (1948): 562–93Google Scholar, 367. See Rosenberg, Charles E., “Erwin H. Ackerknecht: Social Medicine and the History of Medicine”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine 81 (2007): 511–32Google Scholar.
52. Ackerknecht, “Anticontagionism,” 589.