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PRESENTING THE “TRUE FACE OF SYRIA” TO THE WORLD: URBAN DISORDER AND CIVILIZATIONAL ANXIETIES AT THE FIRST DAMASCUS INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 July 2010

Kevin W. Martin
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Extract

International fairs—the “folk-festivals of capitalism”—have long been a favorite topic of historians studying quintessential phenomena of modernity such as the celebration of industrial productivity, the construction of national identities, and the valorization of bourgeois leisure and consumption in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Europe, the United States, and Latin America. To date, however, such spectacles occurring in the modern Middle East remain largely unexamined. This article, an analysis of the discourse surrounding the first Damascus International Exposition in 1954, is conceived in part as a preliminary effort to redress this historiographic imbalance.

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International Journal of Middle East Studies , Volume 42 , Issue 3 , August 2010 , pp. 391 - 411
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

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References

NOTES

Author's Note: I am grateful to Sara Scalenghe, Chris Toensing, and the four anonymous IJMES readers, all of whom offered numerous critical comments and valuable suggestions that greatly improved the final result. Unless otherwise indicated, all translations are mine.

1 “Maʿrid Dimashq Mirʾa li-Nahdat Suriya wa-l-Bilad al-ʿArabiyya al-Haditha,” al-Nas, 1 September 1954, 3. The phrase also appears in “Wizarat al-Difaʿ al-Watani Tashtarik fi Maʿrid Dimashq al-Dawli,” al-Jundi, 2 September 1954, 7; “Wa-Akhiran . . . Yaftatih Maʿrid Dimashq al-Dawli, wa-Tantahi Mawjat al-Shaʾiʿat!” al-Jamiʿa, 29 August 1954, 3–4; and “The Damascus International Fair: 2nd September to 1st October, 1954,” in the special English-language magazine Syria, published in 1953 by the Ministry of Information and National Guidance, 41.

2 Morss, Susan Buck, The Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades Project (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989), 86Google Scholar.

3 Notable exceptions include Mitchell, Timothy, Colonising Egypt (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988)Google Scholar; idem, “The World as Exhibition,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 31 (1989): 221; Davis, Eric, “Representations of the Middle East at American World Fairs 1876–1904,” in The United States and the Middle East: Cultural Encounters, ed. Amanat, Abbas and Bernhardsson, Magnus (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 2002), 342–81Google Scholar; and Çelik, Zeynep, Displaying the Orient: Architecture of Islam at Nineteenth-Century World's Fairs (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1992), 139–51Google Scholar.

4 Heydemann, Steven, Authoritarianism in Syria: Institutions and Social Conflict, 1946–1970 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999), 8Google Scholar.

5 This category also includes Torrey's, GordonSyrian Politics and the Military, 1945–1958 (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1964)Google Scholar; Hopwood's, DerekSyria, 1945–1986: Politics and Society (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988)Google Scholar; and several studies that focus exclusively on the Baʿth Party, as well as a handful of theses and dissertations.

6 For the first two eras, see Grehan, James, Everyday Life and Consumer Culture in Eighteenth-Century Damascus (Seattle, Wash.: University of Washington Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Gelvin, James L., Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Thompson, Elizabeth, Colonial Citizens: Republican Rights, Paternal Privilege, and Gender in French Syria and Lebanon (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000)Google Scholar; and Watenpaugh, Keith David, Being Modern in the Middle East: Revolution, Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Arab Middle Class (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For the Asad era, see Wedeen, Lisa, Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric and Symbols in Contemporary Syria (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999)Google Scholar; Cooke, Miriam, Dissident Syria: Making Oppositional Arts Official (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Salamandra, Christa, A New Old Damascus: Authenticity and Distinction in Urban Syria (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 2004)Google Scholar.

7 Arnould, Eric J., “Daring Consumer-Oriented Ethnography,” in Representing Consumers: Voices, Views and Visions, ed. Stern, Barbara (New York: Routledge, 1998), 111–13Google Scholar.

8 Wedeen, Ambiguities of Domination, 13.

9 Hanssen, Jens, Fin de Siècle Beirut: The Making of an Ottoman Provincial Capital (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2005), 5Google Scholar.

10 Special publication Syria, 1953.

11 See, for example, the back cover of al-Jamiʿa, 31 January 1954. Such assertions of the exposition's novelty were dubious at best. For details about previous expositions mounted in the region, see Çelik, Zeynep, Empire, Architecture, and the City: French–Ottoman Encounters, 1830–1914 (Seattle, Wash.: University of Washington Press, 2008)Google Scholar; and Mitchell, Colonising Egypt.

12 Trillo, Mauricio Tenorio, Mexico at the World's Fairs: Crafting a Modern Nation (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1996), 7Google Scholar.

13 See, for example, “Suriya Bilad al-Athar,” Sawt Suriya, 14 August 1954, 42; “The Damascus International Fair,” 41.

14 See, for example, “Qadaya al-Balda,” al-Mukhtar, 23 September 1954, 5; al-Mukhtar, 2 September 1954, 1; “Maʿrid Dimashq”; “The Damascus International Fair,” 41; and Ibn al-Balad, “Qadaya al-Balda,” al-Mukhtar, 17 August 1954, 3.

15 “Al-Ishtirak fi al-Maʿarid Nawʿ Jadid min al-Diʿaya,” al-Jamiʿa, 29 August 1954, 20.

16 See, for example, “al-Sinaʿat al-Suriyya al-Haditha” and “al-Sinaʿa al-Suriyya fi al-Tarikh,” al-Mukhtar, 2 September 1954, 21, 32; and “Bayan min al-Sharika al-Tijariyya al-Sinaʿiyya al-Muttahida (al-Khumasiyya) ila al-Shaʿb al-Suri al-Karim,” al-Dunya, 27 August 1954, 10, 31.

17 These were Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, China (People's Republic), Czechoslovakia, Egypt, France, (West) Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Iraq, Iran, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, The Netherlands, Pakistan, Poland, Saudi Arabia, the Soviet Union, Spain, the United States, Yemen, and Yugoslavia. “Maʿrid Dimashq al-Dawli Safha Mushriqa fi Tarikh Suriya al-Haditha,” al-Raqib, 4 September 1954, 18–19; “Taʿala maʿi ila Maʿrid Dimashq al-Dawli,” al-Dunya, 27 August 1954, 13.

18 This context colored much of the official discourse surrounding the exposition. See, for example, “Ahali Hay al-Qasaʿ Yastankirun wa-Yutalibun Sahib al-Safir al-Amiriki min Dimashq,” al-Nas, 25 August 1954, 2.

19 See, for example, “al-Ishtirak fi al-Maʿrid,” 20; “Luqtat fi Maʿrid Dimashq,” al-Nas, 5 September 1954, 1.

20 For details of Peel's role, see Time, 13 September 1954; Life, 27 September 1954; Life, 8 April 1957; and American Heritage.com 21, no. 2 (2005), http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/2005/2/2005_2_10.shtml (accessed 1 August 2008).

21 Knight, John, “Discovering the World in Seville: The 1992 Universal Exposition,” Anthropology Today 8, no. 5 (1992): 23CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22 “Taʾira Taqtaʿa Musafa Tawila hatta Tablugh al-ʿAsima al-Suriyya li-Taqaddum ‘al-Sinirama’ fi Maʿrid Dimashq al-Dawli Qariban,” al-Nas, 18 August 1954, 3; “al-Falak al-ʿArdi . . . Hadhihi Hiyya al-Sinirama,” al-Nas, 25 August 1954, 3; “al-Sinirama . . . Akhir Uʿjuba . . . fi Dimashq,” al-Mukhtar, 2 September 1954, 35; “al-Sinirama fi Dimashq,” al-Raqib, 4 September 1954, 25.

23 Among those so depicted were the Egyptian actors Muhammad Fawzi and Farid Shawqi and a number of prominent Syrian political figures. Al-Nas, 6 September 1954, 4; al-Mukhtar, 23 September 1954, 6; al-Nas, 10 September 1954, 4. For ticket scarcity, see Nashʾat al-Tighilbi, “Bitaqat Majaniyya Tubaʿa fi al-Suq al-Sawdaʾ,” al-Jamiʿa, 9 October 1954, 13; for the expert assessments, see Salah Dehni, “al-Fan al-Sabiʿ,” al-Jundi, 23 September 1954, 33.

24 See, for example, Nashʾat al-Tighilbi, “Waraʾa Sitar al-Sinirama al-Aluminyumi,” al-Jamiʿa, 9 October 1954, 12–13.

25 “Wizarat al-Difaʿ fi al-Maʿrid,” al-Jamiʿa, 29 August 1954, 9.

26 The security and validity of these elections remained in doubt until their successful completion. See, for example, “al-Ghumud Yusaitir ʿala al-Mawqif al-Intikhabi fi Suriya,” al-Nuqqad, 11 July 1954, 1; “Nidaʾ Wazir al-Dakhiliyya ila al-Nakhibin,” al-Nas, 25 September 1954, 2.

27 The family had produced numerous prominent political figures in the 20th century, most notable among them Khalid's distant cousin Ali Buzo, who served as Syria's interior minister several times prior and subsequent to the first Damascus International Exposition.

28 For additional biographical information, see Faris, George, ed., Man Huwa fi Suriya 1949 (Damascus: Matbaʿat al-ʿUlum wa-l-Adab Hashimi Ikhwan, 1951), 115–16Google Scholar; and idem, Man Hum fi al-ʿAlam al-ʿArabi. al-Juzʾ al-Awwal: Suriya (Damascus: Maktab al-Dirasat al-Suriyya wa-l-ʿArabiyya, 1957), 98–99.

29 Brown, Julia Prewitt, The Bourgeois Interior (Charlottesville, Va.: University of Virginia Press, 2008), xiGoogle Scholar. Most prominent among Buzo's deputies were Inspector General Salim al-Zirikli, Assistant Director General Akram al-Kilani, Public Relations Director Sharif al-Urfali, Lottery Director Khalid al-Nabulsi, Director of Exhibitors' Affairs Hisham al-Khatib, Financial Officer Mustafa al-Banna, and Technical Director al-Amir Hasan al-Jazaʾiri. With the exception of al-Jazaʾiri, who retained his family's Ottoman-era princely titles, all were products of lesser branches of old notable families who owed their positions primarily to professional qualifications. “Maʿrid Dimashq,” 3.

30 Davis, “Representations,” 378.

31 Debord, Guy, The Society of the Spectacle, trans. Nicholson-Smith, Donald (New York: Zone Books, 1995), 19Google Scholar.

32 See, for example, al-Nas, 23 August 1954, 4.

33 Al-Dunya, 27 August 1954, 10.

34 “Tashila li-l-ʿAridin wa-l-Zaʾirin al-Ajanib,” al-Nas, 18 August 1954, 4. See also “Maʿrid Dimashq,” 3; and “Bayan,” al-Jundi, 16 June 1954, 38, in which Exposition Director General Khalid Buzo calls upon owners of private residences to rent them to “guests” during the exposition.

35 The number of tourists who visited Syria during “the exposition month” of September was 171,582, more than four times the next highest total of 39,832 in June. Receipts from foreign trade permits rose from 500,000 Syrian lira in 1953 to 750,000 in 1954. The Syrian Republic, al-Majmuʿa al-Ihsaʾiyya li-ʿAm 1955 (Damascus: Government Press, 1955), 303, 197. This influx of outsiders ultimately compelled the government to make schools available as “suitable sleeping quarters for visitors.” “Iʿlan,” al-Mukhtar, 22 July 1954, 2.

36 Massad, Joseph A., Desiring Arabs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 50, 76–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Massad's focus is, of course, on the nahḍa literature's tendency to disavow or explain away the sexual predilections and practices depicted in classical Arabic literature. Yet, I maintain, the observation applies here as well, with “the beggar” standing in for the omnipresent “sodomite” in the texts Massad analyzes.

37 See, for example, “Maʿrid Dimashq al-Dawli Yaftatih fi Hina,” al-Nas, 8 August 1954, 2; “Balaghan Tudhiʿuhuma Mudiriyyat Maʿrid Dimashq al-Dawli,” al-Nas, 16 August 1954, 2; and “Balagh ila al-ʿAridin al-Suriyin,” al-Jundi, 26 August 1954, 6. The evasion of customs fees, the violation of price controls, and street crime were recurring problems. See, for example, “Mudiriyyat al-Jamarik Tunzir Ruʾasaʾ al-Ajniha bi-l-Maʿrid,” al-Nas, 10 September 1954, 2; “Mamnuʿ al-Bayʿ bi-l-Maʿrid,” al-Nas, 15 September 1954, 2; “Min Sijill al-Shurta,” al-Nas, 22 August 1954, 2; “Min Sijill al-Shurta,” al-Nas, 7 September 1954, 4; and “Min Sijill al-Shurta,” al-Nas, 10 September 1954, 2. For injuries and deaths at the fairgrounds, see “Hadith Muʾsif Yaqaʿ Zuhr Ams fi Maʿrid Dimashq al-Dawli,” al-Nas, 26 August 1954, 2; “Min Sijill al-Shurta,” al-Nas, 3 September 1954, 2; “Min Sijill al-Shurta,” al-Nas, 5 October 1954, 1; “Min Sijill al-Shurta,” al-Nas, 24 August 1954, 4; and “Min Sijill al-Shurta,” al-Nas, 29 August 1954, 2. For evidence of Cold War tensions, see “Luqtat fi Maʿrid Dimashq,” al-Nas, 5 September 1954, 1; “Himayat al-Janah al-Amriki,” al-Nas, 7 September 1954, 2; and Ibn al-Balad, “Qadaya al-Balda,” al-Mukhtar, 29 July 1954, 2.

38 This state of affairs persisted until the promulgation of the United Arabic Republic's Press Law #195 in December 1958. For details, see ʿUthman, Hashim, al-Sihafa al-Suriyya: Madiha wa-Hadiruha (Damascus: Matabiʿ Wizarat al-Thaqafa, 1997), 241, 295, 310, 324–28Google Scholar; Iliyas, Juzif, Tatawwur al-Sihafa al-Suriyya fi Miʾat ʿAm (Beirut: Dar al-Nidal li-l-Tibaʿa wa-l-Nashr wa-l-Tawziʿ, 1982–83), 2:89–94, 139–48Google Scholar; and McFadden, Tom Johnston, Daily Journalism in the Arab States (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1953), 44–56Google Scholar. Attempts to reinstate earlier controls were unsuccessful.

39 See Babil, Nasuh, Sihafa wa-Siyasa: Suriya fi al-Qarn al-ʿAshrin (London: Riad El-Rayyes, 1987)Google Scholar.

40 Shakir al-Khurdaji's weekly newspaper al-Mukhtar and Husni al-Barazi and Nazir Fansa's daily newspaper al-Nas were founded after the restoration of civilian government in March 1954. Nashʾat al-Tighilbi and Fuʾad Yaʿqub's weekly magazine al-Jamiʿa as well as ʿUthman Shuhrur's comparable al-Raqib slightly predates the overthrow of al-Shishakli. Al-Barazi was a politically eccentric and ambitious member of an old notable land-owning family from Hama, while the rest were professional journalists of more “middling” origins.

41 Robert Darnton, “The Library in the New Age,” The New York Review of Books 15:10 (12 June 2008), 73.

42 See, for example, al-Nas, 13 September 1954, 2; and “Halat al-Amn Hadiʾa,” al-Nas, 19 September 1954, 2.

43 “Balagh Jadid min Mudir al-Shurta wa-l-Amn,” al-Nas, 22 September 1954, 2; “Dururat Itfaʾ Nur al-Sayyarat,” al-Nas, 3 September 1954, 2; “Mukafahat al-Tahrib li-alla Tastaghill Fursat al-Maʿrid” al-Nas, 1 September 1954, 2; “Uhdharu Madinat al-Milhi,” al-Raqib, 4 September 1954, 28.

44 See, for example, al-Mukhtar, 8 July 1954, 3; “Shakwat al-Nas,” al-Mukhtar, 29 July 1954, 2; “Taʾmin al-Muwasalat Laylan,” al-Nas, 24 September 1954, 2; “Qadaya al-Balda,” al-Mukhtar, 23 September 1954, 5; and “Shakwa al-Nas,” al-Mukhtar, 29 July 1954, 2.

45 Ibn al-Balad, “Qadaya al-Balda,” al-Mukhtar, 17 August 1954, 3.

46 Al-Nas, 24 August 1954, 4; “Ziyadat ʿAdad al-Shurta,” al-Nas, 3 September 1954, 2; “Alfan Siyara Lubnaniyya Dakhilat Suriya bi-Saʿatayn,” al-Nas, 23 September 1954, 2; “al-Mubashira bi-Mukafahat al-Tasawwul wa-l-Mutasawwilin bi-Dimashq,” al-Nas, 2 September 1954, 2.

47 See Ibn al-Balad, “Qadaya al-Balda,” al-Mukhtar, 29 July 1954, 2; Muslih Ijtimaʿi Kabir, “ʿAtash fi Madinat Dimashq!?,” al-Mukhtar, 11 October 1954, 6; “Raqibu Sinaʿat al-Kazuz,” al-Nas, 9 September 1954, 2; Ibn al-Balad, “Qadaya al-Balda,” al-Mukhtar, 17 August 1954, 3; and “al-Sihha fi al-Maʿrid,” al-Nas, 29 August 1954, 2.

48 Ibn al-Balad, “Qadaya al-Balda,” al-Mukhtar, 29 July 1954, 2.

49 Ibn al-Balad, “Qadaya al-Balda,” al-Mukhtar, 17 August 1954, 3.

50 See, for example, Douglas, Mary, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (New York: Routledge, 1991), 2, 161Google Scholar; and Cohen, William A., “Introduction: Locating Filth,” in Filth: Dirt, Disgust, and Modern Life, ed. Cohen, William A. and Johnson, Ryan (Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), xxviiiGoogle Scholar.

51 Ibid., xxiii; Chakrabarty, Dipesh, Habitations of Modernity: Essays in the Wake of Subaltern Studies (Delhi, India: Permanent Black, 2002), 77Google Scholar.

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54 Massad, Desiring Arabs, 76.

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62 Ibid., xiii, 28, 76, 319–39, 321, 73, 99, 107. Such attitudes were present in the cities of Bilad al-Sham by the late 19th century, as is evidenced in Hanssen, Fin de Siècle Beirut, 115–37.

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74 Ibn al-Balad, “Qadaya al-Balda,” al-Mukhtar, 29 July 1954, 2.

75 “Qadaya al-Balda,” al-Mukhtar, 8 July 1954, 3.

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83 “Mukafahat al-Tasawwul,” al-Nas, 29 August 1954, 2.

84 “Al-Mubashira bi-Mukafahat al-Tasawwul,” 2.

85 “Mudiriyyat al-Shurta Tatlub al-ʿAdliya al-Tashaddud bi-Muhakamat al-Tasawwulin wa-l-Mutasharridin,” al-Nas, 3 September 1954, 2.

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