Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T20:47:40.696Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

EGYPTIAN BY ASSOCIATION: CHARITABLE STATES AND SERVICE SOCIETIES, CIRCA 1850–1945

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 April 2014

Lisa Pollard
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In this article I argue that the Egyptian state emerged as a welfare provider in the mid-20th century, first by depending on the services of charitable societies to feed, educate, and provide medical assistance to the poor, and later by imitating and harnessing the activities of charitable societies. Drawing on correspondence between the state and service societies from the 1880s to 1945, when King Faruq (r. 1936–52) granted the Egyptian Ministry of Social Affairs (MOSA) the authority to define and to circumscribe the activities of social welfare organizations, the article illustrates the interactions of and the similarities between private and state-sponsored charity. The article further suggests that the establishment of MOSA helped to consolidate the hegemony of the Egyptian state over society and, at the same time, exemplified a dialectical process of state formation engaged in by Egyptian heads of state, service organizations, and the Egyptians whose needs they served.

Type
Articles
Information
International Journal of Middle East Studies , Volume 46 , Issue 2: Politics of Benevolence , May 2014 , pp. 239 - 257
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

NOTES

Author's note: I extend my gratitude to the National Endowment for the Humanities for funding this project and to the American Research Center in Egypt for facilitating my research. Thanks are also due to my home institution, University of North Carolina Wilmington (UNCW), for granting me the sabbatical time to begin this project. The Center for Middle East Studies at UC Berkeley and the Sawyer Seminar at UNC Chapel Hill provided me the with opportunity to present earlier versions of this article and to sharpen my arguments. Pascale Ghazaleh, Shane Minkin, Mona Russell, Sarah Shields, Chris Toensing, and my colleagues in the history department at UNCW offered insightful comments and critical interventions, as did the IJMES reviewers and editors. My friend and neighbor Patricia Conlon has been a faithful copyeditor. I alone am responsible for any remaining errors.

1 Minister of Social Affairs Dr. Husayn, Ahmad, “Foreword,” in Ministry of Social Affairs, The Royal Government of Egypt, Social Welfare in Egypt (Cairo: Société Orientale de Publicité, 1950)Google Scholar, i.

2 Dar al-Wathaʾiq al-Qawmiyya (Egyptian National Archives, hereafter DWQ), Abdin Box 203, “Social Societies, 1899–1952.” Box 203 contains letters and greetings to King Faruq from association members, telegrams, and societies’ annual reports. Years given indicate the date of correspondence with the palace. Examples include the Society of Success (1899) (education and small loans; library; concerts; theater; sale of workshop products at affordable prices); Eastern Service Society (1933) (burial); Royal Society for the Protection of Orphans (theater performances). From DWQ Majlis al-Wuzaraʾ (Council of Ministers, MW) Boxes 3A, B, J, and M. These boxes contain associations’ annual reports, and requests for governmental subventions or tax breaks. Years given indicate the date of correspondence with the Council of Ministers and not the date of the association's establishment. Examples include: Greek Society (1904) (vocational school); Islamic Benevolent Society (1905) (elementary and vocational education; produce sold to the poor); al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqa Society (1905) (elementary and vocational education for boys and girls). For examples of various uses of association space, see also al-Ijtimaʿiyya, al-Jamʿiyya al-Misriyya li-l-Dirasat, Dirasa Ijtimaʿiyya li-l-Khidamat bi-Hay Abdin (Cairo: Dar al-Hina li-l-Tabaʿa, 1960), 156–85Google Scholar.

3 Decree-Law Creating the Ministry of Social Affairs, cited in Ministry of Social Affairs, Social Welfare in Egypt, 9; Ener, Mine, Managing Egypt's Poor and the Politics of Benevolence in Egypt, 1800–1952 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2003), 131Google Scholar.

4 Mazower, Mark, Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (New York: Vintage Press, 1978), 79Google Scholar; Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 131.

5 Decree-Law Creating the Ministry of Social Affairs, cited in Ministry of Social Affairs, Social Welfare in Egypt, 5.

6 Qandil, Amani and Nefissa, Sarah ben, al-Jamʿiyyat al-Ahliyya fi Misr (Cairo: Markaz al-Dirasat al-Siyasiyya wa-l-Istratijiyya, 1994), 56Google Scholar; Johnson, Amy J., Reconstructing Rural Egypt: Ahmed Hussein and the History of Egyptian Rural Development (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2004), 50Google Scholar.

7 Qandil and Ben Nefissa, al-Jamʿiyyat, 76. Robert Bianchi links the organizational and paramilitary potential of an increasing number of Egypt's political parties with state intervention. See Unruly Corporatism: Associational Life in Twentieth-Century Egypt (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 59–72.

8 Johnson, Reconstructing Rural Egypt, 48; Mitchell, Richard P., The Society of the Muslim Brothers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993)Google Scholar, chap. 2; Lia, Brynar, The Society of Muslim Brothers in Egypt: The Rise of an Islamic Mass Movement (London: Ithaca Press, 2006)Google Scholar, chap. 7.

9 DWQ, Abdin Box 203, Society for Social Service (Jamʿiyyat al-Khidma al-Ijtimaʿiyya), Letter from the society to King Faruq, 1936. On the relationship between reform and making use of free time, see also Jacbo, Wilson Chacko, Working Out Egypt: Effendi Masculinity and Subject Formation in Colonial Modernity, 1870–1940 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2011)Google Scholar, chap. 4.

10 DWQ, Abdin Box 206, “Islamic Societies,” Society of Muslim Youth of Qalyubiyya (Jamʿiyyat al-Shaban al-Muslimin fi al-Qalyubiyya), 1936–37, Letter to the king from the society. On the relationship between associational life and sporting, see Jacob, Working Out Egypt.

11 DWQ Abdin Box 203, Egyptian Service Society (Jamʿiyya Khidmiyya Misriyya), Letter to King Fuʾad from the society, 27 January 1933.

12 Ener argues that Faruq's government assumed control of charitable associational life in 1939 in order to preempt the political activities of charitable associations. This essay extends her argument by linking the politics of charitable provision with social reform and state intervention. See Managing Egypt's Poor, 130. Bianchi argues that MOSA was an innovative countermeasure to the organizational abilities of mass movements like the Muslim Brotherhood. He sees MOSA as an “attempt to bolster authoritarianism by creating an illusion of a modern welfare state.” Bianchi, Unruly Corporatism, 72; see also 64–65.

13 See Qandil and Ben Nefissa, al-Jamʿiyyat, especially section 1 on the history of associational life in Egypt.

14 DWQ, Abdin, Box 203, report from al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqa Society on its Hernia Hospital, December 1921. See also Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, chap. 5, “The Future of the Nation.”

15 Hasan, Mahmud, al-Khidma al-Ijtimaʿiyya (Cairo: Dar al-Maʿarif, 1967), 114Google Scholar.

16 Hasan, al-Khidma al-Ijtimaʿiyya; Bianchi, Unruly Corporatism; Qandil and Ben Nefissa, al-Jamʿiyyat; Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor; Johnson, Reconstructing Rural Egypt.

17 Putnam, Robert D., Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), 20–22Google Scholar.

18 Cole, Juan, Colonialism and Revolution in the Middle East: Social and Cultural Origins of Egypt's ʿUrabi Movement (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993)Google Scholar, chap. 5; Reid, Donald M., “The Egyptian Geographical Society: From Foreign Laymen's Society to Indigenous Professional Organization,” Poetics Today 24 (1993): 539–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 Cole, Colonialism and Revolution, 156, 160–63.

20 Wissa, Karim, “Freemasonry in Egypt 1798–1921: A Study in Cultural and Political Encounters,” British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin 16 (1989): 145–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Landau, Jacob M., “Prolegomena to a Study of Secret Societies in Egypt,” Middle Eastern Studies 1 (1965): 135–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 See Baron, Beth, The Women's Awakening in Egypt: Culture, Society and the Press (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1994), 176–80Google Scholar; and Badran, Margot, Feminists, Islam and Nation: Gender and the Making of Modern Egypt (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995), 51–55Google Scholar.

22 See Shalabi, Hilmi Ahmad, Harakat al-Islah al-Ijtimaʿi fi Misr (Cairo: al-Hayʾa al-Misriyya al-ʿAmma li-l-Kitab, 1988)Google Scholar, chap. 1; Kitroeff, Alexander, The Greeks in Egypt, 1919–1937: Ethnicity and Class (London: Ithaca Press, 1989), 18–19Google Scholar; Erselio, Michel, Esuli Italiani in Egito, 1815–1861 (Pisa: Domus Mazziniana Collana Scientifica, 1958)Google Scholar, 306, cited in Marzia Borsoi, “Alexandria and Cairo: The ‘Balad’ or ‘Terra Nostra’ of the Italians in Egypt, 1860–1956” (master's thesis, University of North Carolina, Wilmington, 2013); and Shane Elizabeth Minkin, “In Life as in Death: The Port, Foreign Charities, Hospitals and Cemeteries in Alexandria, Egypt, 1865–1914” (PhD diss., New York University, 2009), 128.

23 Beinin, Joel and Lockman, Zachary, Workers on the Nile: Nationalism, Communism, Islam and the Egyptian Working Class, 1882–1954 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987), 49–54Google Scholar.

24 Putnam, Bowling Alone, 20–22.

25 Kitroeff, The Greeks in Egypt, 145; and Minkin, “In Life as in Death,” chap. 3.

26 Cole, Colonialism and Revolution, 157.

27 Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 104; Badran, Feminists, Islam and Nation, 49.

28 Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 104.

29 Hasan, al-Khidma al-Ijtimaʿiyya, 51.

30 Landau, Jacob M., Jews in Nineteenth-Century Egypt (New York: New York University Press, 1969), 64–65Google Scholar; Qandil and Ben Nefissa, al-Jamʿiyyat, 52.

31 Krämer, Gudrun, The Jews of Modern Egypt, 1914–1952 (Seattle, Wash.: University of Washington Press, 1989)Google Scholar, chap. 1 and 68–69.

32 Qandil and Ben Nefissa, al-Jamʿiyyat, 53.

33 On charity in Mamluk Egypt, see Sabra, Adam, Poverty and Charity in Medieval Islam: Mamluk Egypt, 1250–1517 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

34 Ener, Mine, “The Charity of the Khedive,” in Poverty and Charity in Middle Eastern Contexts, ed. Bonner, Michael, Ener, Mine, and Singer, Amy (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 2003), 187Google Scholar.

35 Chalcraft, John, The Striking Cabbies of Cairo and Other Stories: Crafts and Guilds in Egypt: 1863–1914 (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press), 23Google Scholar.

36 Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 7.

37 Ghazaleh, Pascale, “Pious Foundations: From Here to Eternity,” in Held In Trust: Waqf in the Islamic World, ed. Ghazaleh, Pascale (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 2005), 1Google Scholar; Hasan, al-Khidma al-Ijtimaʿiyya, 68.

38 Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 43.

39 Baron, Beth, “Orphans and Abandoned Children in Modern Egypt,” in Interpreting Welfare and Relief in the Middle East, ed. Naguib, Nefissa and Okkenhaug, Inger Marie (Leiden: Brill Press), 20–21Google Scholar; Ener, “The Charity of the Khedive,” 187.

40 Nadir Özbek, “Imperial Gifts and Sultanic Legitimization during the Late Ottoman Empire, 1876–1909,” in Bonner et al., Poverty and Charity, 203–22.

41 Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 21.

42 Tignor, Robert L., Modernization and British Colonial Rule in Egypt, 1882–1919 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966)Google Scholar, chap. 10.

43 Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 39.

44 Baron, Beth, “Women's Voluntary Social Welfare Organizations in Egypt,” in Gender, Religion and Change in the Middle East, ed. Okkenhaug, Inger Marie and Flaskerud, Ingvild (Oxford and New York: Berg Press, 2005), 87Google Scholar.

45 Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 100–105.

46 Baer, Gabriel, Studies in the Social History of Modern Egypt (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 223Google Scholar.

47 Gallagher, Nancy, Egypt's Other Wars: Epidemics and the Politics of Public Health (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1990), 8–9Google Scholar.

48 Berque, Jaques, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, trans. Jean Stewart (New York: Praeger Press, 1974), 114Google Scholar.

49 On motivations for giving, see Cavallo, Sandra, Charity of Power in Early Modern Italy: Benefactors and Their Motives, 1541–1789 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995)Google Scholar; and Lindenmeyer, Adele, Poverty Is Not a Vice (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996)Google Scholar.

50 Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 112; Badran, Feminists, Islam and Nation, 47; Baron, Women's Awakening, 168–72.

51 Baron, “Women's Voluntary Social Organizations,” 170; Badran, Feminists, Islam and Nation, 50.

52 Baron, Women's Awakening, 172.

53 Gallagher, Egypt's Other Wars, 10–11; Badran, Feminists, Islam and Nation, 51.

54 DWQ, Abdin, Box 209, “Artistic, Literary and Touristic Societies,” 1909. Ener's work illustrates that in the early 1880s the Mosque of Ibn Tulun was similarly cleaned up and restored in the interests of tourism. See Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 74.

55 Rifaʿat, Wafiq, “L'Angleterre et l'instruction publique en Egypte,” in Oeuvres du Congrès National Egyptien, tenu à Bruxelles le 22, 23 24 Septembre 1910 (Bruges, Belgium: St. Catherine's Press, 1911), 160–63Google Scholar, 459–61.

56 See al-Maliyya, Nizarat, Ihsaʾ al-Jamʿiyyat al-Khayriyya wa-l-Mustashfayat al-Tabaʿa laha (Cairo: Nizarat al-Maliyya, 1913), 1–21Google Scholar.

57 Cohen, Julia Phillips, “Between Civic and Islamic Ottomanism: Jewish Imperial Citizenship in the Hamidian Era,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 44 (2012): 237–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Özbek, Nadir, “Philanthropic Activity, Ottoman Patiotism and the Hamidian Regime, 1876–1909,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 27 (2005): 59–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

58 Qandil and Ben Nefissa, al-Jamʿiyyat, 72–73. The section on the relationship between the Egyptian state and civil society is single authored by Ben Nefissa.

59 Scott, James C., Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press), 77–78Google Scholar.

60 DWQ, MW, Box 3J. In 1904, the Council of Ministers waived land taxes for the Greek Society in Alexandria because the land was to be used to build a vocational school.

61 DWQ, MW, 3A. On 27 July 1885, the Islamic Benevolent Society was exempted from taxes on a piece of state land purchased by the society in Assyut.

62 DWQ, MW, 3B, Request to the Council of Ministers for state land on which to build a school, al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqa Society, 9 January 1903.

63 See Nizarat al-Maliyya, Ihsaʾ al-Jamʿiyyat al-Khayriyya wa-l-Mustashfayat al-Tabiʿa laha, 1–21.

64 Examples of such state-society interactions abound. The Islamic Benevolent Society, for example, was exempted from the expenses of registering a sales contract for a piece of land in April 1906. The exemption was made because the society intended to build a school on the property. That society also sold produce from its land to raise money for further buildings. DWQ, MW, Box 3A.

65 Carrie Rosefsky Wickam makes a similar argument about the 1970s and 1980s, in Mobilizing Islam: Religion, Activism and Political Change in Egypt (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), chap. 5.

66 DWQ, MW, Box 4A, Request from the Coptic Benevolent Society to the Council of Ministers, August 1914.

67 For example, in 1915 the Cairo Aid Society (Jamʿiyyat al-Isʿaf al-ʿUmumiyya bi-l-Qahira) received an annual subvention of 100 Egyptian pounds to supplement its works during the war (MW, 3M, 1915). The following year, the society was given a parcel of state land to use for fifty years so that it could erect more buildings for educational and medical services (Abdin, Box 204, 1916). As a general rule, however, government grants, price breaks on land, and reduced taxes formed only a part of the societies’ financial base. The jamʿiyyāt also had royal patrons and received donations from banks and businesses. Many associations relied on the donations of waqf endowments to their holdings. Membership fees and annual dues also generated revenue. Some of the larger and more prosperous organizations published monthly journals and relied on limited revenue from their distribution. Organizations with schools charged tuition to a certain percentage of their students and used the revenue for further development. Theater productions and other kinds of galas provided additional revenue, as did lotteries. See, for example, DWQ, MW, Box 3B, al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqa, 1916.

68 Chopra, Preeti, A Joint Enterprise: Indian Elites and the Making of British Bombay (Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, xvi.

69 Rafiʿ al-Tahtawi, Rifaʿa, An Imam in Paris: Al-Tahtawi's Visit to France (1826–1831), ed. and trans. Newman, Daniel L. (London: Saqi Books, 2004)Google Scholar, 119–20.

70 Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 128–29.

71 DWQ, Abdin, Box 203, Jamʿiyyat al-Birr bi-l-Insan, Annual Report to the Egyptian Council of Ministers, 3 March 1921.

72 Badran, Feminists, Islam and Nation, 51; Baron, Women's Awakening, 172.

73 DWQ, Abdin, Box 203, 1936–37, Annual Report of the Society of Muslim Young People of the Qalyubiyya Governate. They report that the graduates of their schools went on to al-Azhar and into the Zagazig Institute of Religion.

74 DWQ, Abdin, Box 203, al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqa Society, 3 March 1921, Report to the Egyptian Council of Ministers on the society's hernia hospital.

75 Bianchi, Unruly Corporatism, 63.

76 Ibid., 70–71.

77 Ibid., 71.

78 Ibid.

79 Pollard, Lisa, Nurturing the Nation: The Family Politics of Modernizing, Colonizing and Liberating Egypt (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, chap. 4; Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 99–110. Jean Quataert refers to projects such as the freedom orphanage as staged philanthropy. See Staging Philanthropy: Patriotic Women and the National Imagination in Dynastic Germany, 1813–1916 (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 2001).

80 DWQ, Abdin, Box 203, al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqa Society, Report to Egyptian Council of Ministers on the Society's Hernia Society, December 1921.

81 El Shakry, Omnia, The Great Social Laboratory: Subjects of Knowledge in Colonial and Postcolonial Egypt (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2011), 111Google Scholar.

82 Johnson, Reconstructing Rural Egypt; Mitchell, Society of the Muslim Brothers, chap. 2.

83 Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 129.

84 Hasan, al-Khidma al-Ijtimaʿiyya 94–95; Jacob, Working Out Egypt, chaps. 3–5.

85 DWQ, Abdin Box 203, letter to King Fuʾad, September 1933.

86 DWQ, Abdin Box 209, n/d, in folder “Artistic, Literary, Tourism Societies, 1902–1949.”

87 Gallagher, Egypt's Other Wars, 13.

88 Deeb, Marius, Party Politics in Egypt: The Wafd and Its Rivals 1919–1939 (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1979), 371–75Google Scholar, 380–81; Mitchell, The Society of Muslim Brothers, chap. 6.

89 Albert Hourani, “Foreword,” in Marius Deeb, Party Politics in Egypt, ii.

90 Gallagher, Egypt's Other Wars, 13; Deeb, Party Politics in Egypt, 356–57.

91 El Shakry, The Great Social Laboratory, 137.

92 Johnson, Reconstructing Rural Egypt, 31.

93 El Shakry, The Great Social Laboratory, 123–26.

94 Johnson, Reconstructing Rural Egypt, 31–32.

95 DWQ, Abdin, Box 203, Annual Report from the Society to the Egyptian Council of Ministers, 14 April 1939. See also El Shakry, The Great Social Laboratory, 132–33.

96 Majallat al-Shuʾun al-Ijtimaʿiyya, no. 3 (March 1940): 112–18.

97 Deeb, Party Politics in Egypt, 344.

98 Qandil and Ben Nefissa, al-Jamʿiyyat, 76.

99 Ener, Managing Egypt's Poor, 130–31.

100 Here I draw on Foucault's understanding of the evolution of “raison d'etat” in European history. Foucault, Michel, Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1977–1978, ed. Senellart, Michel and trans. Graham Burchell (New York: Picador Press, 2007)Google Scholar.

101 Ministry of Social Affairs, Social Welfare in Egypt, 9. My emphasis.

102 Ibid.

103 al-Ijtimaʿiyya, Al-Idara al-ʿAmma li-l-Shuʾun, al-Ijtimaʿiyya, Wizarat al-Shuʾun, Wizarat al-Shuʾun al-Ijtimaʿiyya: Nishatha wa-Tatawwurha wa-Khidamatha (Cairo: Dar al-Kutub al-ʿArabi bi-Misr, 1955), 1–3Google Scholar.

104 Ministry of Social Affairs, Social Welfare in Egypt, 5.

105 Ibid., 14.

106 Majallat al-Shuʾun al-Ijtimaʿiyya, no. 7, July 1941, 41.

107 El Shakry, The Great Social Laboratory, 137; Ministry of Social Affairs, Social Welfare in Egypt, 11–41.

108 Johnson, Reconstructing Rural Egypt, 24–27.

109 DWQ, Abdin, Box 203, Annual Report from the Society to the Egyptian Council of Ministers, 14 April 1939.

110 Wizarat al-Shuʾun al-Ijtimaʿiyya, Wizarat al-Shuʾun al-Ijtimaʿiyya, 169.

111 DWQ, Abdin 203. Examples abound: Faruq I Society for Social Reform (1944); Society for the Bonds of Social Reform (1947); Society in Quest of Social Reform in Rod al-Farag (Neighborhood) (1947); Society for Social Service in Misr al-Jadida (1947).

112 DWQ, Abdin 40, “Ministry of Social Affairs,” “Report in Response to Law 62 of 1941.”

113 DWQ, Abdin 206, “Islamic Societies,” Letter from the Society for Preaching and Propagating Islam to MOSA, dated 30 November 1940.

114 Wizarat al-Shuʾun al-Ijtimaʿiyya, Wizarat al-Shuʾun al-Ijtimaʿiyya, 14, 149.

115 Hasan, al-Khidma al-Ijtimaʿiyya, 114.

116 Maghraoui, Abdeslam M., Liberalism without Democracy: Nationhood and Citizenship in Egypt, 1922–1936 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2006), 10CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

117 Mursi, Fuʾad, Qanun al-Daman al-Ijtimaʿi (Cairo: Matbaʿat Fuʾad al-Awwal, 1952), 275.Google Scholar

118 Scott, Seeing Like a State, 3, 6.

119 Kozma, Liat, Policing Women: Sex, Law and Medicine in Khedival Egypt (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2011), 3Google Scholar, xvii.

120 al-Meehy, Asya, “Egypt's Popular Committees: From Moments of Madness to NGO Dilemmas,” Middle East Report 265 (2012): 29–33Google Scholar.

121 wa-l-ʿAlaqat al-ʿAmma, Idarat al-Maʿlumat, Wizarat al-Shuʾun al-Ijtimaʿiyya fi 25 ʿAman (Cairo: Wizarat al-Shuʾun al-Ijtimaʿiyya, 1965), 87Google Scholar.