The Education of a Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Âlim, Ahmed Cevdet Paşa

Richard L. Chambers

doi:10.1017/S0020743800031111

The Education of a Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Âlim, Ahmed Cevdet Paşa

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 29 January 2009

Richard L. Chambers

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Richard L. Chambers: Affiliation:
University of Chicago

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In 1924 the doors of the medreses of Turkey were ordered closed by the Grand National Assembly. The century-old movement to modernize and secularize Turkish education reached a crucial watershed with the abandonment of the traditional Islamic system of mektebs and medreses. The bifurcation which had characterized Ottoman education since the early nineteenth century and which had been reflected in the empire's educated élite could not be tolerated in the new, secular republic envisaged by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

Type: Articles
Information: International Journal of Middle East Studies , Volume 4 , Issue 4 , October 1973 , pp. 440 - 464

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743800031111 [Opens in a new window]
Copyright: Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1973

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^{page 440 note 1} A ‘true Ottoman’ is defined as a man who served the Ottoman state and the Islamic faith and who knew and lived according to the accepted Ottoman cultural pattern (Thomas, Lewis V. and Frye, Richard N., The United States and Turkey and Iran [Cambridge, Mass., 1952], pp. 46–7).Google Scholar

^{page 441 note 1} Paşa, Cevdet, Tezâkir, ed. Baysun, Cavid, (Ankara, 1953–1967), vol. 4, pp. 3–4.Google Scholar Baysun's edition of Cevdet's memoranda has been published by the Kurumu, Türk Tarih (II Seri, nos. 17, 17^a, 17^b, 17^c). Tezkeres 1–12 are in vol. 1, 13–20 in vol. II, 21–39 in vol. III, and the autobiographical Tezkere 40-Tetimme in vol. IV. This work will be cited hereafter as Tezâkir.Google Scholar

^{page 441 note 2} Ibid.. 4.Google Scholar

^{page 441 note 3} Uzunçarşili, Ismail Hakki, Midhat Paşa ve Ta'if Mahkûmlan (Ankara, 1950), p. 127.Google Scholar

^{page 441 note 4} Ibid.;Google ScholarMidhat, Ali Haydar, The Life of Midhat Pasha (London, 1903), p. 32.Google Scholar

^{page 441 note 5} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 4;Google ScholarAliye, Fatma, Cevdet Paşca ve Zamam (Istanbul, 1332 [1914]), p. 9. Fatma Aliye's biography of her father will be cited hereafter as Cevdet Paşca.Google Scholar

^{page 441 note 6} For a comprehensive treatment of Turkish education, see Ergin, Osman, Türkiye Maarif Tarihi (Istanbul, 1939–1943).Google Scholar See also Gibb, H. A. R. and Bowen, Harold, Islamic Society and the West (London, 1950–1957), vol. 1/2, pp. 139–64;Google ScholarUbicini, A., Letters on Turkey, trans. Easthope, Lady (London, 1856), vol. 1, pp. 190–212;Google ScholarLewis, Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London, 1961), passim.Google Scholar

^{page 442 note 1} Günyol, Vedad, ‘Mektep’, Islam Ansikiopedisi, vol. 7, pp. 655–9;Google ScholarErgin, , Maarif Tarihi, vol. 1, pp. 68–82;Google ScholarUbicini, , Letters, vol. 1, pp. 193, 199;Google ScholarGibb, and Bowen, , Islamic Society, vol. 1/2, p. 143. Hereafter, Islam Ansiklopedisi will be cited as IA.Google Scholar

^{page 442 note 2} Cevdet Paşa, p. 9;Google ScholarSevük, Ismail Habib, Tanzimattanberi Edebiyat Tarihi (Istanbul, 1940), p. 167;Google ScholarMardin, Ebül'ula, Medeni Hukuk Cephesinden Ahmet Cevdet Paşa (Istanbul, 1946), p. 12, n. 23. It is possible that Lofça was exceptional only by virtue of the accident of three famous men having come from there at about the same time. This would not necessarily mean that Lofça possessed superior schools or was particularly enlightened.Google Scholar

^{page 442 note 3} On this book of Koranic commentary and its author, see Baysun, M. Cavit, ‘Mescid’, İA, vol. 8, p. 75;Google ScholarErgin, , Maarif Tarihi, vol. 1, pp. 86, 91;Google ScholarBrockelmann, C., ‘Beyzâvi’, İA, vol. 2, pp. 593–94;Google Scholarde Vaux, B. C. Carra, ‘Tafsir’, Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed.), vol. 4, p. 604;Google ScholarRobson, J., ‘al-Baydāwī’, Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.), vol. 1, p. 1129;Google ScholarBrockelmann, C., Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, vol. 1, (Leiden, 1943), pp. 530 ff. The two editions of Encyclopaedia of Islam will be cited hereafter as El ¹ and El ².Google Scholar

^{page 442 note 4} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 5;Google ScholarCevdet Paşa, pp. 10–11.Google Scholar

^{page 443 note 1} On this school, see Ergin, , Maarif Tarihi, vol. 2, pp. 298–310.Google Scholar

^{page 443 note 2} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 5.Google Scholar

^{page 443 note 3} These are to be found in ibid.pp. 5–18.Google Scholar See also Cevdet Paşa, pp. 11–30. The information concerning Cevdet Paşa's life as a student in Istanbul is found in these sources unless otherwise noted.Google Scholar

^{page 443 note 4} On medrese education and the teaching profession, a brief description of which follows, see Uzunçarşili, Ismail Hakki, Osmanli Devletinin Ilmiye Teskilati (Ankara, 1965), pp. 1–81;Google ScholarErgin, , Maarif Tarihi, vol. 1, pp. 82–102;Google ScholarGibb, and Bowen, , Islamic Society, vol. 1/2, pp. 143–54;Google ScholarBaysun, , ‘Mescid’; Ilmiye Salnamesi (Istanbul, 1334 [1915]), pp. 642 ff.;Google ScholarErgin, Osman Nun, Mecelle-i Umur-u Belediye (Istanbul, 1922), vol. 1, pp. 265 ff.;Google ScholarPaşa, Ahmed Cevdet, Tarih-i Cevdet (Istanbul, 1309 [1891–1892), vol. 1, pp. 108–27;Google ScholarGibb, E. J. W., A History of Ottoman Poetry (London, 1900–1909), vol. 2, pp. 394–400.Google Scholar The technical terms and titles used can be found in Pakalm, Mehmet Zeki, Osinanli Tarih Deyimleri ve Terimleri Sözlügˇü (Istanbul, 1946–1956), passim.Google Scholar

^{page 444 note 1} Gibb, and Bowen, , Islamic Society, vol. 1/2, p. 146, n. i.Google Scholar

^{page 444 note 2} Pakalin, , Deyimleri, vol. 2, pp. 19–20;Google ScholarUzunçarşili, Ilmiye Teşkilati, pp. 75–7.Google Scholar

^{page 445 note 1} On kadis and naibs, see Mantran, Robert, Istanbul dans la seconde moitié du XVII^e siècle (Paris, 1962), pp. 130–43.Google Scholar

^{page 445 note 2} For the degeneration of the ulema and the medreses, see Gibb, and Bowen, , Islamic Society, vol. 1/2, pp. 105–13, 147–54;Google ScholarUzunçarşili, Itlmiye Teşkilattt, pp. 48–53, 67–75, 236–66;Google ScholarKaral, Enver Ziya, Osmanli Tarihi, vol. 5 (Ankara, 1947), pp. 69, 162–6, 185–7; vol. vi (Ankara, 1954), pp. 184–8;Google ScholarMardin, Şerif A., The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought (Princeton, 1962), pp. 128–30, 141–2, 150, 198–202, 216–25.Google Scholar

^{page 445 note 3} Gibb, and Bowen, , Islamic Society, vol. 3/2, p. 305.Google Scholar See also Mardin, Ş., Genesis, p. 219, where he speaks of the ‘official’ ulema.Google Scholar

^{page 445 note 4} Ubicini, , Letters, vol. 1, p. 196.Google Scholar

^{page 446 note 1} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 5.Google Scholar On the Papasogˇlu Medrese, see von Hammer-Purgstall, Joseph, Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches (Pest, 1827–1835), vol. 9, pp. 57, 150.Google Scholar

^{page 446 note 2} For this and subsequent references to specific localities within Istanbul, see Ayverdi, Ekrem Hakki, 19. Astrda Istanbul Haritasi (Istanbul, 1958);Google ScholarBelediyesi, Istanbul, Istanbul Şehri Rehberi (Istanbul, 1934); and the map of the city in von Hammer, Geschichte, vol. x.Google Scholar

^{page 446 note 3} Tezaˇkir, vol. 4, p. 6;Google ScholarCevdet Paşa, p. 11. For çömez,Google Scholar see Pakaln, , Deyimleri, vol. 1, p. 381;Google ScholarBaysun, ‘Mescid’, p. 75.Google Scholar

^{page 446 note 4} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 7.Google Scholar For those terms, see Pakalm, , Deyimleri, vol. 1, p. 283;Google ScholarAgˇakay, Mehmet Ali (ed.), Türkçe Sözlük (Ankara, 1959), p. 148.Google Scholar

^{page 446 note 5} The following account of this examination is based on Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 6,Google Scholar and Cevdet Paşa, pp. 11–22.Google Scholar

^{page 446 note 6} Tanişik, Ibrahim Hilmi, Istanbul Çeşmeleri (Istanbul, 1945), vol. 2, p. 133.Google Scholar

^{page 447 note 1} This was his bevvap (literally ‘doorman’, but probably in this instance referring to the poor student who was in his hire).Google Scholar

^{page 447 note 2} Cevdet Paşa, pp. 21–2.Google Scholar

^{page 448 note 1} Baysun, ‘Mescid’, p. 76.Google Scholar

^{page 448 note 2} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 7.Google Scholar

^{page 448 note 3} Ibid.

^{page 448 note 4} Ibid.pp. 8–9;Google ScholarCevdet Paşa, pp. 14–15.Google Scholar See also Tezâkir, vol. 2, pp. 68–9.Google Scholar

^{page 448 note 5} The term he used was tabaka (layer, stratum, class, rank, standing).Google Scholar

^{page 448 note 6} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 8.Google Scholar

^{page 448 note 7} Ibid.; Mardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 16, n. 24.Google Scholar

^{page 449 note 1} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 8;Google ScholarMardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 17, n. 25;Google ScholarTahir, Bursali Mehmed, Osmanli Müellifleri (Istanbul, 1917–1926), vol. 1, p. 244;Google ScholarSüreyya, Mehmed, Sicill-i Osmani (Istanbul, 1308–15 [1890–1897]), vol. 1, p. 341;Google ScholarBabinger, Franz, Die Geschichtsschreiber der Osmanen und ihre Werke (Leipzig, 1927), p. 356. The work of Mehmed Tahir will be cited hereafter as OM, and that of Mehmed Süreyya as SO.Google Scholar

^{page 449 note 2} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 8;Google ScholarMardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 17, n. 26.Google Scholar

^{page 449 note 3} On Mutavvel, see Baysun, ‘Mescid’, p. 75;Google ScholarMardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 14, nn. 17–18.Google Scholar

^{page 449 note 4} Tezäkir, vol. 2, pp. 68–9 and vol. xv, p. 8;Google ScholarMardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 17, n. 27.Google Scholar

^{page 449 note 5} Superintendent of medrese instruction. See Pakalm, , Deyimleri, vol. 1, p. 428.Google Scholar

^{page 449 note 6} On this normal school, see Ergin, , Maarif Tarihi, vol. 2, pp. 475ff.Google Scholar

^{page 449 note 7} Tezâkir, vol. 4, pp. 46 ff.Google Scholar See also Lewis, B., ‘Andiuman’, EI², vol. 1, p. 505.Google Scholar

^{page 449 note 8} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 8;Google ScholarMardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 18, n. 29.Google Scholar

^{page 450 note 1} Mardin, E. also found no biography of Şehri Hafiz (Medeni Hukuk, p. 19, n. 29), but in his index Baysun indicates that the âlim's full name was Şehri Hafiz Emin Efendi (d. 1867). There is a brief entry under this name in SO, vol. I, p. 433, which shows that he was at one time hassa ordusu müftisi and the müallim of Sultan Abdülmecid.Google Scholar

^{page 450 note 2} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 8;Google ScholarMardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 19, n. 30.Google Scholar

^{page 450 note 3} Tezâkir, vol. 4, pp. 8–9;Google ScholarMardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 19, n. 31.Google Scholar

^{page 450 note 4} Baysun remarks also that very few students were to be found in Istanbul during the month of Şaban (‘Mescid’, p. 76).Google Scholar

^{page 450 note 5} Tezâkir, vol. 4, pp. 8, 10–11;Google ScholarCevdet Paşa, pp. 15, 17;Google ScholarMardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 19, n. 32.Google Scholar

^{page 450 note 6} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 11. This must have been the ‘general diploma’ mentioned above.Google Scholar

^{page 450 note 7} Ibid.pp. 9–10.Google Scholar

^{page 451 note 1} Ibid.p. 9;Google ScholarMardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 18, n. 27a; SO, vol. iv, p. 476.Google Scholar

^{page 451 note 2} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 10.Google Scholar

^{page 451 note 3} The following account of Vidinli Hoca's class is based on Tezâkir, vol. 4, pp. 10–11Google Scholar and Cevdet Paşa, pp. 17–38.Google Scholar

^{page 452 note 1} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 9.Google Scholar

^{page 452 note 2} Şeyhülislam Hasan Fehmi Efendi. See Tezâkir, vol. 4, pp. 9, 11;Google ScholarCevdet Paşa, p. 19;Google ScholarSO, vol. ii, p. 172;Google ScholarIlmiye Salnamesi, pp. 599–602.Google Scholar

^{page 452 note 3} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 11.Google Scholar

^{page 452 note 4} Cevdet Paşa, p. 19.Google Scholar

^{page 452 note 5} For a full treatment of these events, see Mardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, pp. 78 ff.Google Scholar See also Mardin, Şerif A., ‘Some Explanatory Notes on the Origins of the “Mecelle”,’ The Muslim World, vol. 51 (1961), p. 278.Google Scholar

^{page 452 note 6} Tezâkir, vol. 4, pp. 9, 11;Google ScholarMardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 20, n. 33;Google ScholarItlmiye Salnamesi, pp. 608–9.Google Scholar

^{page 453 note 1} The fetvahane was a special department of the şeyhülislam's office dealing with private applications for legal opinions (fetvas) and headed by the fetva emini. See Gibb, and Bowen, , Islamic Society, vol. 1/2, p. 86;Google ScholarErgin, , Maarif Tarihi, vol. 1, pp. 222–9.Google Scholar

^{page 453 note 2} Cevdet Paşa, p. 19.Google Scholar

^{page 453 note 3} This incident is related in Tezâkir, vol. 4, pp. 11–12,Google Scholar and Cevdet Paşa, pp. 19–20.Google Scholar

^{page 453 note 4} The textbook was Tehzib (Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 11).Google Scholar For this work on philosophical ethics, see Walzer, R., ‘Akhlak’, EI¹, vol. 1, p. 328;Google ScholarDonaldson, D. M., Studies in Muslim Ethics (London, 1953), pp. 127–33.Google Scholar

^{page 453 note 5} The author of this work was Ismail Gelenbevi, a mathematics professor at the Mühendishane (Mardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 23, n. 39).Google Scholar

^{page 453 note 6} A term used for unruly medrese students. See Pakahn, , Deyimleri, vol. 1, p. 509.Google Scholar

^{page 454 note 1} A short manual of Arabic grammar. See Cheneb, Moh Ben, ‘Ibn al-Hādjib’, El¹, vol. 2, p. 381;Google ScholarBrockelmann, , Litteratur, vol. 1, p. 305;Google ScholarHuart, Clément, A History of Arabic Literature (London, 1903), p. 192.Google Scholar

^{page 454 note 2} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 7Google Scholar

^{page 454 note 3} Ibid.pp. 7–8.Google Scholar

^{page 454 note 4} For information on this work, see Mardin, B., Medeni Hukuk, p. 23, n. 40.Google Scholar

^{page 454 note 5} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 12.Google Scholar

^{page 454 note 6} Ibid.;Google ScholarCevdet paşa, pp. 20–1.Google Scholar

^{page 454 note 7} On this poetic form, see Ateş, Ahmet, ‘Mesnevî’, IA, vol. 8, pp. 127–33;Google ScholarLevy, R., ‘Mathnawī’, El¹, vol. 3, pp. 410–12;Google ScholarPakalm, , Deyimleri, vol. 2, pp. 488–90.Google Scholar

^{page 454 note 8} On the absence of Persian from the medrese curriculum, see Lütfi, Ahmed, Tarih-i Lütfi (Istanbul, 1290–1328 [1873–1911]), vol. 4, p. 115;Google ScholarErgin, , Maarif Tarihi, vol. 1, pp. 133–5;Google ScholarGibb, and Bowen, , Islamic Society, vol. l/2, pp. 152–3.Google Scholar

^{page 455 note 1} ‘Vakanüvis Cevdet Paşanin Evraki’, Tarih-i Osmani Encümeni Mecmuast, vol. 8 (1333 [1914]), pp. 283–84;Google ScholarMardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, pp. 22, n. 34, and 31.Google Scholar

^{page 455 note 2} Cevdet Paşa, p. 23.Google Scholar

^{page 455 note 3} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 7;Google ScholarCevdet Paşa, pp. 12–13.Google Scholar

^{page 455 note 4} For this prominent Ottoman mathematician, see Mardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 22, n. 36;Google ScholarEsat, Mehmed, Mir'at-t Mühendishane-i Berrî-i Hümayun (Istanbul, 1312 [1894]), pp. 34–42.Google Scholar

^{page 455 note 5} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 7.Google Scholar

^{page 455 note 6} On Nuri Bey, see Mardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 22, n. 35,Google ScholarEsat, Mehmed, Mir'at, pp. 49–50.Google Scholar

^{page 455 note 7} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 7.Google Scholar On Osman Saib Efendi, see Mardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 23, n. 37; SO, vol. iii, p. 448.Google Scholar

^{page 456 note 1} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 7. A handwritten copy of this treatise by Cevdet Paşa is now in the Municipal Library of Istanbul (Istanbul Belediye Kütüphanesi, Cevdet Paşanzn Yazmalari, no. 58).Google Scholar

^{page 456 note 2} Information on the Murad Molla Tekke and its şeyh can be found in Gökman, Mazaffer, Murat Molla Hayati, Kütüphanesi, ve Eserleri (Istanbul, 1943).Google Scholar

^{page 456 note 3} For Nakşbendî, see Brown, John P., The Darvishes or Oriental Spiritualism, ed. Rose, H. A. (London, 1927), pp. 139–55, 435–46.Google Scholar A list of the order's tekkes in Istanbul which includes that of Murad Molla is given (ibid.pp. 470–3).Google Scholar See also Subhan, John A., Sufisin: Its Saints and Shrines (Lucknow, 1938), pp. 186–92;Google ScholarBirge, John Kingsley, The Bektashi Order of Dervishes (London, 1937), pp. 78–9;Google ScholarGibb, E. J. W., Poetry, vol. 2, p. 374.Google Scholar

^{page 456 note 4} Cevdet Paşca, pp. 22–5.Google Scholar

^{page 457 note 1} For darülmesnevi, see Ergin; Maarif Tarihi, vol. I, pp. 133–5;Google ScholarPakalin, , Deyimleri, vol. 1, p. 400. Both refer to the Murad Molla establishment.Google Scholar

^{page 457 note 2} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 17;Google ScholarBaysun, M. Cavid, ‘Cevdet Paşa Şahsiyetine ye Ilim Sahasindaki Faaliyetine dâir’, Türkiyat Mecmuasi, vol. 11 (1954), p. 215.Google Scholar

^{page 457 note 3} For the biography of this poet, see Ali Canib Yöntem, ‘Fehim’, IA, vol. iv, pp. 537–8; Ibnülemin Mahmud Kemal Inal, Son Asir Türk Şairleri (Istanbul, 1930–42), pp. 379–81. Şerif Mardin names Ferruh Efendi as Cevdet's Persian instructor (Genesis, p. 231, n. 142). Actually, İsmail Ferruh Efendi had taught Fehim who then instructed Cevdet (Cevdet Paşa, p. 25; Yöntem, ‘Fehim’, p. 537).Google Scholar

^{page 457 note 4} For Cevdet's Paşa's contact with Fehim Efendi, see Tezâkir, vol. 4, pp. 13–14, 22–4; Cevdet Paşa, pp. 25–6;Google ScholarBaysun, ‘Cevdet Paşa Sahsiyetine’, p. 215.Google Scholar

^{page 457 note 5} These were Seyyid Vehbi and Sünbülzade Vehbi, according to Baysun (‘Cevdet Paşa Şahsiyetine’, p. 215).Google Scholar

^{page 458 note 1} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 13.Google Scholar

^{page 458 note 2} Ibid.p. 15;Google ScholarMardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 25, n. 48.Google Scholar

^{page 458 note 3} Cevdet Paşa, pp. 21, 26, 29.Google Scholar

^{page 458 note 4} Mardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, pp. 24–5.Google Scholar

^{page 458 note 5} Tezâkir, vol. 4, pp. 15–16.Google Scholar

^{page 459 note 1} On this great sufi writer, see T. H. Weir, ‘Ibn (al-) 'Arabi’, El ¹, vol. II, pp. 361–2.Google Scholar

^{page 459 note 2} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 16;Google ScholarCevdet Paşa, p. 27.Google Scholar

^{page 459 note 3} Tezakir, vol. 4, pp. 6–7.Google Scholar

^{page 459 note 4} For the biography of this şeyhülislam, see Mantran, R., ‘Arif Hikmet Bey’, El², vol. 1, p. 630;Google ScholarGiese, F., “Arif Hikmet Bey’, El¹, vol. 1, p. 432;Google ScholarAbdullah, Fevziye, ‘Arif Hikmet Bey’, IA, vol. 1, pp. 564–8; SO, vol. iii, pp. 274–5; OM, vol. i, p. 383;Google ScholarGibb, E. J. W., Poetry, vol. 4, p. 351;Google ScholarIlmiye Salnamesi, pp. 590–91.Google Scholar

^{page 459 note 5} Mardin, Ş., Genesis, p. 219.Google Scholar Professor Mardin's citation to his source (ibid., n. 92) was checked and does bear out this contention.Google Scholar See also Cevdet's obituary of Arif Hikmet Bey (Tezâkir, vol. 2, pp. 71–3).Google Scholar

^{page 460 note 1} Cevdet Paşa, p. 20.Google Scholar

^{page 460 note 2} Mardin, Ş., Genesis, pp. 218–19.Google Scholar

^{page 461 note 1} Tezâkir, vol. 4, pp. 17–18;Google ScholarCevdet Paşa, pp. 29–30.Google Scholar

^{page 461 note 2} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 17.Google Scholar

^{page 461 note 3} On the importance of intisap, see Itzkowitz, N., ‘Mehmed Raghib Pasha: The Making of an Ottoman Grand Vezir’ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1959), pp. 79–85, but especially, pp. 79–80.Google Scholar

^{page 462 note 1} Cevdet Paşa, p. 28.Google Scholar

^{page 462 note 2} Tezâkir, vol. 4, p. 17.Google Scholar

^{page 462 note 3} Ibid.p. 18.Google Scholar

^{page 462 note 4} Ibid.pp. 6, 18;Google ScholarCevdet Paşa, pp. 12, 30.Google Scholar

^{page 462 note 5} For this period of Cevdet's life, see Chambers, Richard L., ‘Ahmed Cevdet Paşa: The Formative Years of an Ottoman Transitional’ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1968), chapters iii and iv.Google Scholar

^{page 463 note 1} Ibid.pp. 171–3.Google Scholar

^{page 464 note 1} Mardin, E., Medeni Hukuk, p. 58, n. 92.Google Scholar

^{page 464 note 2} Bowen, Harold, ‘Ahmad Djewdet Pasha’, El², vol. 1, p. 286.Google Scholar

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