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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 23 December 2020
A vast array of narratives found in medieval historical chronicles and literary sources have referenced the particular ways in which the culture associated with the ‘Abbasid caliphate diverged from a binary model of gender. Despite debate about the historical accuracy of these early chronicles, the repeated references to the sixth ‘Abbasid caliph Muhammad al-Amin's non-heteronormativity indicate at least a kernel of truth. This article examines the collective memory construction of al-Amin in the Egyptian series Harun al-Rashid (1997) and two Syrian series, Abna’ al-Rashid: al-Amin wa-l-Ma'mun (The Sons of al-Rashid: al-Amin and al-Ma'mun, 2006) and Harun al-Rashid (2018). These contemporary portrayals of the life of al-Amin simultaneously illustrate the process by which history is altered by authorial perspective and the erasure of nonheteronormative space within the ‘Abbasid caliphate. My own authorial perspective inclines toward an interpretation of al-Amin as queer; through this lens, an inspection of wide-ranging accounts of al-Amin's life reveals the historical biases of his time and our current moment, too, as historians then and now variably recognize al-Amin's queerness in constructing collective memory. Some have argued that anti–al-Amin chroniclers may have engaged in historical revisionism and referred to al-Amin as queer to discredit the caliph, but ultimately, whether or not this is true, the current application of those early references by contemporary screenwriters is the most revealing historiographical decision, as his many representations serve as a mirror for our contemporary subjectivities, interests, and agendas. At a time when queer lives and experiences are notably absent from traditional historical narratives, this article proposes that regardless of the accuracy of the original sources, the absence itself in contemporary portrayals is significant, as patterns of exclusion yield tangible meaning. In this particular case, the ready elimination of queerness from contemporary narratives shows the ways in which queerness is vulnerable to erasure in favor of other, more politically expedient identity characteristics and values.
1 Davis, Natalie Zemon, Slaves on Screen: Film and Historical Vision (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 133–36Google Scholar.
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3 Ibid., 91.
4 Davis, Natalie Zemon, Slaves on Screen: Film and Historical Vision (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 133–36Google Scholar.
5 Gordon, Joel, “Viewing Backwards: Egyptian Historical Television Dramas in the 1990s,” Round Table: Televisual and Cinematic Narratives of the Middle East, in Review of Middle East Studies 52, no. 1 (2018): 74–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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7 Muhammad Mansur, ‘Ashiq al-Bi'a al-Dimashqiyya (Damascus: Kan‘an Books, 2009), 21–156.
8 Christa Salamandra, A New Old Damascus: Authenticity and Distinction in Urban Syria (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2004), 102–23.
9 Marwan M. Kraidy and Omar al-Ghazzi, “Neo-Ottoman Cool: Turkish Popular Culture in the Arab Public Sphere,” Popular Communication 11, no. 21 (2013).
10 Nusayr and Bilal, al-Drama al-Tarikhiyya, 1–41; phone interview, Nusayr, 11 February 2020.
11 Rebecca Joubin, The Politics of Love: Sexuality, Gender, and Marriage in Syrian Television Drama (Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books, 2013), 185–229. Ironically, after the 2011 uprising, the Bab al-Hara installments no longer used the French authorities as a stand-in for the Ba‘th party regime, but rather as a way to critique foreign interferences and conspiracies in Syria.
12 Nusayr and Bilal, al-Drama al-Tarikhiyya, 1–41; phone interview, Nusayr, 11 February 2020.
13 Toby Miller and Marwan M. Kraidy, Global Media Studies (Cambridge, MA: Polity Press, 2016), 140; Pedram Partovi, “Televisual Experiences of Iran's Isolation: Turkish Melodrama and Homegrown Comedy in the Sanctions Era,” Review of Middle East Studies 52, no. 1 (2018): 120.
14 Hanadi al-Samman, “Out of the Closet: Representations of Homosexuals and Lesbians in Modern Arabic Literature,” Journal of Arabic Literature 39, no. 2 (2008): 270–72.
15 Sahar Amer, Crossing Borders: Love between Women in Medieval French and Arabic Literatures (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 1–28.
16 Gregory Rosenthal, “Making Roanoke Queer Again,” Public Historian 39, no. 1 (2017): 35–60.
17 Jamie Scot, “A Revisionist History: How Archives Are Used to Reverse the Erasure of Queer People in Contemporary History,” QED: A Journal in LGBT Worldbuilding 1, no. 2 (2014): 205–9.
18 Tayed el-Hibri, Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Harun al-Rashid and the Narrative of the ‘Abbasid Caliphate (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 12–13.
19 Hanadi al-Samman, “Out of the Closet: Representations of Homosexuals and Lesbians in Modern Arabic Literature,” Journal of Arabic Literature 39, no. 2 (2008): 270–72.
20 Cooperson, al-Ma'mun, xiii, 39–55.
21 Joseph Massad, Desiring Arabs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 1–50.
22 Michael Cooperson, al-Ma'mun: The Revival of Islam (London: Oneworld, 2005), 13–15.
23 Tayed el-Hibri, Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Harun al-Rashid and the Narrative of the ‘Abbasid Caliphate (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 12–13.
24 Gharib Tus: Sirat al-Imam ‘Ali bin Musa al-Rida, directed by Mehdi Fahimzadeh, dubbed into Arabic by Ziyad Hanna (Markaz Bayrut al-Dawli li-l-Intaj wa-l-Tawzi‘ al-Fanni, 2016).
25 Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe, eds., Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History, and Literature (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 303.
26 Personal correspondence, Ghassan Zakariyya, 31 May 2020. Zakariyya also elaborated that there were anecdotes about both al-Amin's fondness for eunuchs and disinterest in women in books such as al-Iqd al-Farid by Ibn ‘Abd Rabbuh al-Andalusi. Zakariyya contends that although this is hardly a documented historical event it does indicate a widespread perception about al-Amin's queerness.
27 Al-Tabari, The Early ‘Abbasi Empire, vol. 2, The Sons and Grandsons of al-Mansur: The Reigns of al-Mahdi, al-Hadi, and Harun al-Rashid, A.D. 775–808), trans. John Alden Williams (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 118, 137, 157–235; al- Mas‘udi, The Meadows of Gold: The Abbasids, trans. and ed. Paul Lunde and Caroline Stone (London: Routledge, 2010), 82–169.
28 André Clot, Harun al-Rachid et le temps des mille et une nuits (Paris: Fayard, 1986), 70–79.
29 Vincent-Mansour Monteil, Abu Nuwas: le vin, le vent, la vie (France: Actes Sud, 1998), 9–18.
30 Everett K. Rowson, “The Effeminates of Early Medina,” in Que(e)rying Religion: A Critical Anthology, ed. Gary David Comstock and Susan E. Henking (New York: Continuum, 1997), 61–88; Everett K. Rowson, “Gender Irregularity as Entertainment: Institutionalized Transvestism at the Caliphal Court in Medieval Baghdad,” in Gender and Difference in the Middle Ages, ed. Sharon Farmer and Carol Braun Pasternack (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003), 45–66; al-Samman, “Out of the Closet,” 270–76; Paul Smith, trans. and introduction, Three Great Abbasid Poets: Abu Nuwas, al-Mutanabbi, and al-Ma‘arri Lives and Poems (Melbourne: New Humanity Books, 2015), 7–10.
31 Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe, eds., Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History, and Literature (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 303.
32 Monteil, Abu Nuwas, 9–18.
33 Ibid., 99.
34 Rowson, “The Effeminates,” 78; Rowson, “Gender Irregularity,” 45–66; Amer, Crossing Borders, 21–22; al-Samman, “Out of the Closet,” 272–74.
35 Rowson, “Gender Irregularity,” 45–66; Sahar Amer, “Medieval Lesbians and Lesbian-Like Women,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 18, no. 2 (2009): 226–27; Scott Siraj al-Haqq Kugle, Homosexuality in Islam: Critical Reflection on Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Muslims (London: Oneworld, 2010), 87.
36 Jurji Zaidan, al-‘Abbasa Ukht al-Rashid (Sidon, Lebanon: al-Maktaba al-‘Asriyya, 2007), 100–1.
37 Personal correspondence, Ghassan Zakariyya, 4 June 2020.
38 Philip Kennedy, Abu Nuwas: A Genius of Poetry (Oxford, UK: Oneworld, 2009), 1–28.
39 Monteil, Abu Nuwas, 9–18.
40 Clot, Haroun al-Rachid, 73; Samar Habib, Female Homosexuality in the Middle East: Histories and Representations (London: Routledge, 2007), 64.
41 Kennedy, Abu Nuwas, 1–28.
42 Lila Abu-Lughod, “Finding a Place for Islam: Egyptian Television Serials and the National Interest,” Public Culture 5, no. 3 (1993): 494–96.
43 Gordon, “Viewing Backwards,” 74–80. See also Abu-Lughod, “Finding a Place,” 494–96; and Walter Armbrust, “Islamists in Egyptian Cinema,” American Anthropologist 104, no. 3 (2002): 922–24.
44 Historically, the famous mission occurred in 799, and al-Rashid died in 809. However, the series shrinks the timeline, showing al-Rashid on his deathbed just after the mission occurs.
45 Khalil Hadeed, “Homosexuality and Epistemic Closure in Modern Arabic Literature,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 45, no. 2 (2013): 271–89.
46 Ahmad Sobhi Mansur, “al-Zawja al-Majhula li-Harun al-Rashid,” ahl-alquran.com, 17 November 2010, www.ahl-alquran.com/arabic/document.php?main_id=1271.
47 Ibid., 4 June 2020.
48 Cooperson, al-Ma'mun, 55.
49 Television interview by the author with Najib Nusayr, February 11, 2020; Lila Abu-Lughod, Dramas of Nationhood, 59–139.
50 In episode 27 Irina refers to him as qa’id, a general/army commander, but had counseled him to examine events through the eyes of a king. By episode 37 we see that he has risen to the ranks of a king.
51 Joan Dupont, “Reason and Revelation: The ‘Destiny’ of Youssef Chahine,” New York Times, 17 October 1997, https://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/17/style/IHT-reason-and-revelation-the-destiny-of-youssef-chahine.html.
52 Historically, the famous mission occurred in 799, and al-Rashid died in 809. However, the series shrinks the timeline, showing al-Rashid on his deathbed just after the mission occurs.
53 Abna’ al-Rashid: al-Amin wa-l-Ma'mun (The Sons of al-Rashid: al-Amin and al-Ma'mun), directed by Shawqi al-Majiri, written by Ghassan Zakariyya and Ghazi al-Dhayba (Arab Telemedia Group, 2006). See, for example, Abna’ wa Ummahat, directed by Muhammad al-Shaliyan, written by Jamal Baghdadi (‘Arab li-l-Intaj wa-l-Tawzi‘ al-Fanni, 1993).
54 Joubin, Politics of Love, 12–17.
55 Rebecca Joubin, Mediating the Uprising: Narratives of Gender and Marriage in Syrian Television Drama (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2020), 187.
56 Ibid., 4 June 2020.
57 Personal correspondence, Ghassan Zakariyya, 6 March 2020; 4 June 2020. Zakariyya recounts that he was told that he was going to be nominated for a script award by the Adonia channel but that the awards were later canceled.
58 Inas Haqqi, “Women and Queer Representations in Syrian TV Series,” retrieved on 16 November 2017, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rx84XRJ1so.
59 Personal correspondence, Ghassan Zakariyya, 6 March 2020.
60 Haqqi, “Women and Queer Representations.”
61 Personal correspondence, Ghassan Zakariyya, 6 March 2020.
62 Ibid., 4 June 2020.
63 Personal correspondence, Ghassan Zakariyya, 6 March 2020.
64 Although historically the throne was a bed, for the sake of continuity with contemporary ideas about thrones, I follow the lead of writers who refer to the throne as a chair.
65 “Al-Liqa’ al-Kamil ma‘ al-Katib ‘Uthman Jaha fi Barnamij al-Mukhtar,” al-Madina FM Syria, YouTube, 15 January 2018, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUXUgUsQk6Y.
66 Joubin, Politics of Love, 1–21.
67 Personal correspondence, Ghassan Zakariyya, 4 June 2020.
68 Massad, Desiring Arabs, 109.
69 Abna’ al-Rashid, episode 18.
70 Tarek El-Ariss, "Majnun Strikes Back: Crossings of Madness and Homosexuality in Contemporary Arabic Literature," in International Journal of Middle East Studies 45, no. 2 (2013): 303.
71 Rebecca Joubin, “The Politics of Iran's Satellite Era: Turkish Serials, Safety Valves and Youth Culture,” Middle East Report 274 (2015): 39.
72 Al-Samman, “Out of the Closet,” 270–77.
73 Author interview,Inas Haqqi, 20 June 2014, Beirut, Lebanon; personal correspondence, Zakariyya, 6 March 2020; Joubin, Mediating the Uprising, 12–13.
74 Personal correspondence, Ghassan Zakariyya, 6 March 2020; Ibid., 4 June 2020.
75 “Al-Liqa’ al-Kamil ma‘ al-Katib ‘Uthman Jaha fi Barnamij al-Mukhtar,” al-Madina FM Syria, YouTube, 15 January 2018, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUXUgUsQk6Y.
76 Harun al-Rashid, directed by ‘Abd al-Bari Abu al-Kheir, written by ‘Uthman Jaha (Golden Line, 2018).
77 Fatima ‘Abd Allah, “Harun al-Rashid: Qusay Khawli Yazlum Nefsahuh,” al-Nahar, 9 June 2018, 8; Rabi‘a Hindi, “`Abd Fahd: Lan Yanjahu fi Jarr Rijli al-Harb Ma‘ Ta'im Hassan,” Zahrat al-Sharq, no. 2048 (2018): 133; author interview, Najib Nusayr, 14 June 2018.
78 Personal correspondence, Inas Haqqi, 15 June 2018; personal correspondence, Ghassan Zakariyya, 4 June 2020.
79 On his Facebook page on 28 May 2018, screenwriter Samer Ridwan lamented the historical inaccuracies, as well as the faulty poetic references.
80 Gordon, “Viewing Backwards,” 91; Zilfi, Madeline C., “The Prequel: Setting the Analytic Stage,” Review of Middle East Studies 52, no. 1 (2018): 67–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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82 Zilfi, “The Prequel,” 67–68.
83 “Hiwar ma‘ Mu'alif al-Suri ‘Uthman Jaha,” Sky News ‘Arabiyya YouTube, 7 February 2017, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H_H9757b59o.
84 “Al-Liqa’ al-Kamil ma‘ al-Katib ‘Uthman Jaha fi Barnamij al-Mukhtar,” al-Madina FM Syria, YouTube, 15 January 2018, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUXUgUsQk6Y.
85 “Hiwar Ma‘ Mu'alif al-Suri ‘Uthman Jaha.”
86 Alain Frachon, “Syrie: la dernière carte de Bachar al-Assad,” Le Monde, 16 June 2011, https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2011/06/16/syrie-la-derniere-carte-de-bachar-al-assad_1536986_3232.html.
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88 El-Hibri, Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography, 1–13.