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Egyptian Liberalism in an Age of “Crisis of Orientation”: Al-Risāla'S Reaction to Fascism and Nazism, 1933–39

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 January 2009

Israel Gershoni
Israel Gershoni
Affiliation:
Department of Middle Eastern and African History, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
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Extract

The 1930s are generally represented as a decade of crisis in Egypt's liberal experiment. In this conventional interpretation, a clear and acute expression of the crisis can be found in the intellectual discourse. The transition of Egyptian intellectuals to the large-scale production of Islamic literature (islāmiyyāt), books and texts dealing with classical Islamic themes and heroes, particularly biographies of the Prophet and al-Khulafā⊂ al-Rāshidün, is presented as “the crisis of orientation.” This intellectual crisis is depicted as a general abandonment of the Western modernist project by intellectuals who, until that time, had advocated a progressive, rational, and liberal orientation and had assumed that the adoption of European ideas, values, and practices en masse was essential for the modernization of Egypt and its formation into a modern nation-state. Now, in the early 1930s, by enthusiastically embracing Islamic themes, the intellectuals were carrying out a “complete retreat on all these fronts.”

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International Journal of Middle East Studies , Volume 31 , Issue 4 , November 1999 , pp. 551 - 576
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1999

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References

NOTES

Author's note: This essay is based in part on research supported by a grant from the (American-Israeli) Binational Science Foundation. An earlier version of it was presented at the annual meeting of the Middle East Studies Association, Chicago, 4 December 1998. My special thanks are due to Ursula Woköck for her thoughtful comments on earlier drafts of this paper. I am also indebted to Eve Troutt-Powell and Tim Powell for their comments on the final version. Finally, I thank the (anonymous) review readers of IJMES for some very useful remarks and suggestions.

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2 Ibid., 140.

3 Ibid., 209–28.

4 Ibid., 192.

5 Vatikiotis, P. J., The Modern History of Egypt (London, 1969), 315Google Scholar; see also Ibid., 323–27; idem, Nasser and His Generation (London, 1978)Google Scholar, 27. For interpretations following a similar line in approaching this intellectual metamorphosis, see A. G. Chejne, “The Use of History by Modern Arab Writers,” Middle East Journal 14 (1960); 387–98Google Scholar; Berque, J., Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution (London, 1972), 508–36, 548–54Google Scholar; Botman, S., Egypt from Independence to Revolution (Syracuse, N.Y., 1991), 89–91, 138–44Google Scholar; Shamir, S., “Liberalism: From Monarchy to Postrevolution,” in Egypt from Monarchy to Republic, ed. Shamir, S. (Boulder, Colo., 1995), 195–212, in particular, 195–200.Google Scholar

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7 Ibid., 382–410; idem, Islam and the Search for Social Order in Modern Egypt: A Biography of Muhammad Husayn Haykal (Albany, N.Y., 1983), 89–157.Google Scholar

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9 Ibid., 145, 146–80, 184–88.

10 Lutfi, A. al-Sayyid-Marsot, Egypt's Liberal Experiment: 1922–1936 (Los Angeles, 1977), 230.Google Scholar See also Ibid., 225–32, 247–49.

11 Ibid., 248.

12 Ibid., 229.

13 Ibid., 248. See also Lutfi, A. al-Sayyid-Marsot, A Short History of Modern Egypt (Cambridge, 1994), 82–106Google Scholar; for a more recent look at “the failure of liberalism,” see Meijer, R., The Quest for Modernity: Secular Liberal and Left-Wing Political Thought in Egypt, 1945–1958, (Amsterdam, 1995), 12–26.Google Scholar The wide spectrum of studies dealing with the intellectuals' shift to Islamic subjects, is—despite great diversity—held together by one common denominator: the focus on the Islāmiyyāt literature, as can be seen in Colombe, M., L'Evolution de L'Egypte, 1924–1950 (Paris, 1951), 122–59Google Scholar; Cachia, P., Taha Husayn: His Place in the Egyptian Literary Renaissance (London, 1956), 93–103, 197–98Google Scholar; von Grunebaum, G. E., Islam: Essays in the Nature and Growth of a Cultural Tradition (London, 1961), 196–98; 208–16, 226–31Google Scholar; Hourani, A., Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age (London, 1962), 333–34Google Scholar; Johansen, B., Muhammad Husain Haikal: Europa und der Orient im Weltbild eines ägyptischen Liberalen (Beirut, 1967), 125–212Google Scholar; Wessels, A., A Modern Arabic Biography of Muhammad: A Critical Study of Muhammad Husayn Haykal's “Hayat Muhammad” (Leiden, 1971), 1–19, 35–48Google Scholar; Semah, D., Four Egyptian Literary Critics (Leiden, 1974), 96–100Google Scholar; Busool, A., “The Development of Taha Husayn's Islamic Thought,” Muslim World 68 (1978): 259–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Badawi, M. M., Modern Arabic Literature and the West (London, 1985), 53–60Google Scholar; and Gershoni, I. and J. P. Jankowski, Redefining the Egyptian Nation, 1930–1945 (Cambridge, 1995), 54–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For a critical discussion of Safran's and Smith's approaches, see Gershoni, I., “Egyptian Intellectual History and Egyptian Intellectuals in the Interwar Period,” Asian and African Studies 19 (1985): 333–64Google Scholar; idem, “The Reader—‘Another Production’: The Reception of Haykal's Biography of Muhammad and the Shift of Egyptian Intellectuals to Islamic Subjects in the 1930s,” Poetics Today 15, no. 2 (1994): 241–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14 ⊂Abd al-⊂AĪim Ramaḍān, Taṭawwur al-Ḥaraka al-Waṭaniyya fl Miṣr min Sanat 1937 ila Sanat 1948, vol. 2, part 1 (Cairo, 1973), 8–31, 33–72, 175–267Google Scholar; ⊂Abd al-āAĪim Ramaḍān, al-Ṣira⊃ bayna al-Wafd wa-al-⊂Arsh, 1936–1939 (Cairo, 1979)Google Scholar; ⊂Abd al-⊂AĪim Ramaḍān, Dirāsāt fi Ta⊃rikh Miṣr al-Mu⊂āṣir (Cairo, 1981), 213–362; ⊂Abd al-⊂AĪim Ramaḍān, al-Fikr al-Thawri fi Miṣr Qabla Thawrat 23 Yūliyū (Cairo, 1981), 9–58, 69–96. See also Muḥammad M. Ḥusayn, al-Ittijāhāt al-Waṭaniyya fi al-Adab al-Mu⊂āṣir, vol. 2 (Cairo, 1956); ṭaha ⊂Umrān Wadr, al-Duktūr Muḥammad Ḥusayn Haykal: Ḥayātuhu wa-Turāthuhu al-Adabi (Cairo, 1969); Ḥusayn Fawzi al-Najjār, Haykal wa-Ḥayat Muḥammad: Manhaj fi Dirāsat al-Ta⊃rikh al-Islāmi (Cairo, 1970); Aḥmad Zakaryā al-Shilaq, Ḥizb al-Aḥrār al-Dustūriyyin, 1922–1952 (Cairo, 1982), 485–91.Google Scholar

15 Initial research in this direction has been undertaken by Shrentzel, I., Democracy and Dictatorship in the Thought of Egyptian Intellectuals, 1933–1944 (M.A. thesis, Tel Aviv University, 1986)Google Scholar; Ayalon, A., “Egyptian Intellectuals Versus Fascism and Nazism in the 1930s,” in The Great Powers in the Middle East, 1919–1939, ed. Dann, U. (New York, 1988), 391–404.Google Scholar

16 For a wider, systematic treatment, see I. Gershoni, Light in the Shade: Egypt and Fascism, 1922–1937 (Tel Aviv, 1999).

17 Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt, “al-Risala,” al-Risāla (hereafter RS), 1, 1 (15 January 1933), 1; Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt, Waḥy al-Risāla, vol. 4 (Cairo, 1958), 72–75; Ni⊂māt Aḥmad Fu⊃ād, Qimam Adabiyya (Cairo, 1966), 175–232; Muḥammad Sayyid Muḥammad, al-Zayyāt wa-al-Risāla (Riyadh, 1982)Google Scholar; Brugman, J.. An Introduction to the History of Modern Arabic Literature in Egypt (Leiden, 1984), 381–87Google Scholar; Walker, D., “Egypt's Liberal Arabism: The Contribution of Ahmad Hasan al-Zayyat,” Rocznik Orientalistyczny XLIX (1995): 61–98Google Scholar; Walker, D., “Egypt's Arabism: Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt: From Islam's Community to the Wide Pan-Arab Nation in the 1930s and 1940s,” Studia Arabistycznei Islamistyczne 4 (1996): 28–71; Gershoni and Jankowski, Redefining, 63–64.Google Scholar

18 As the reader will find, Muhammad Husayn Haykal and Taha Husayn—the protagonists of both Safran's and Smith's interpretations—are not central in the discussion here, because, first, the two intellectuals have been discussed extensively in the existing literature, and we would like to highlight other intellectual voices; and second, although liberal expression on the part of Haykal and Husayn can be found in al-Risāla (see, e.g., the exchanges of letters between Taha Husayn and Haykal and between Taha Husayn and Tawfiq al-Hakim: RS, 1 June 1933, 5–8, 33–39; RS, 15 June 1933, 5–9, 38–42), theirs are not the outstanding voices. Moreover, one should remember that in the first two years of al-Risala's appearance, Taha Husayn served as co-editor of the journal with Ahmad Hasan al-Zayyat. Therefore, he played a central role in determining the liberal line of the weekly. See also note 24.

19 See the detailed lists of contributors: RS, 1 October 1934, 1613; RS, 8 April 1935, 522.

20 Muḥammad, al-Zayyāt, 10–43, 199–221; Walker, “Egypt's Arabism,” 28–37, 46–62.

21 Muḥammad, al-Zayyāt, 190; Fu⊃ad, Qimam, 177–78. See the list of al-Risāla's Arab agents and agencies in nineteen major Arab cities throughout the Arab world: RS, 13 May 1935, 796. See also RS, 13 January 1936, 75–76.

22 Muḥammad, al-Zayyāt, 159–81; Walker, “Egypt's Liberal Arabism,” 28–71; Gershoni and Jankowski, Redefining, 61–65.

23 Gershoni and Walker, Redefining, 61–65; Walker, “Egypt's Liberal Arabism,” 61–98.

24 See, in detail, Gershoni, Light in the Shade, chap. 2–3. Al-Hilāl was another forum within which Muhammad Husayn Haykal and Taha Husayn expressed liberal positions in texts not related to islāmiyyāl; see, for example, Muḥammad ḥusayn Haykal, “Athar al-Siyāsa fi Akhlāq al-Mujtama⊂,” al-Hilāl, 1 March 1936, 485–88; Muḥammad Ḥusayn Haykal, “al-⊂Ālam al-Thā⊃ir,” al-Hilāl, 1 December 1937, 121–23; ṭaha Ḥusayn, “Ba⊂ḍ Wujhāt al-Tafkir al-Ḥadith,” al-Hilāl, 1 February 1937, 361–66.

By contrast, Salama Musa and his monthly al-Majalla al-Jadida gave voice to a pro-Nazi line during the middle of the decade (1930s). But even this position was accompanied by an explicit rejection of Italian fascism. See Gershoni, Light in the Shade, chap. 2–3, and Egger, Vernon, A Fabian in Egypt: Salamah Musa and the Rise of the Professional Classes in Egypt, 1909–1939 (New York, 1986), 194–203.Google Scholar

25 For the use of these terms, see, for example, the following essays by Muḥammad ⊂Abdallāh ⊂Inān: “Azmat al-Dimūqrāṭiyya,” RS, 2 April 1934, 528–30; “al-Inqilābāt al-Siyāsiyyā al-Mu⊂āṣira,” RS, 4 June 1934, 927–29; “Maṣra⊂ al-Ṣiḥaf⊂ al-ṢAĪima fi Īill al-NuĪum al-ṭāghiyya,” RS, 20 May 1935, 809–12; “al-Ṣirā⊂ bayna al-ṭughyān wa-al-Dimūqrāṭiyya,” RS, 25 November 1935, 1887–89. See also “Madhā Ta⊂ani al-Fāshistiyya,” RS, 20 September 1937: 1554–55.

26 Muḥammad ⊂Abdallāh ⊂Inān, Īal-Fāshistiyya wa-Mabā⊃Puhā al-Qawmiyya wa-al-Iqtiṣādiyya,” RS, 21 May 1934,849–51.

27 ⊂Abd al-Razzāq al-Sanhūri, “al-Nahḍāt al-Qawmiyya al-⊂Āmma fi Urūbā wa-fi al-Sharq,” RS, 4 May 1936,726

28 Khalil Hindāwi, “Ittijāhāt al-⊂Adab al-⊂ĀlamI fi al-⊂Aṣr al-Ḥāḍir,” part 1, RS, 16 August 1937, 1334; part 2, RS, 23 August 1937, 1377–80. See also Hindawi's article, RS, 31 May 1937, 907–8.

29 ⊂Inān, “al-Fāshistiyya,” 849.

30 See, for example, Ibid., 849–51; idem, ⊂Inān, “Azmat al-Dimuqrāṭiyya,” 528–30; Sanhūri, “al-Nahḍāt,” 725–27; Diblūmāsi Kabir (⊂Abdallāh ⊂Inān?), “Khaṭar al-Fāshistiyya ⊂alā Salam al-⊂Ālam,” RS, 23 November 1936, 1910–13; Diblūmāsi Kabir, “al-Diblūmāsiyya al-Urūbiyya,” RS, 10 May 1937, 770–72; idem, “al-Am Yasiru al-⊂Ālam? Li-ṭariq al-Ḥarb wa-ṭariq al-Salām,” RS, 8 November 1937, 1804–6; “Ma⊂rakat al-Fāshistiyya wa-al-Dimuqrāṭiyya,” RS, 27 December 1937, 2118–19. See the articles by Muḥammad al-Bahiy Qarqar: RS, 1 June 1937, 937–40; RS, 22 November 1937, 1888–93; “Madhā Ta⊂ani al-Fāshistiyya,” RS, 20 September 1937, 1554–55; editorial, “Maṣdar al-Hitlariyya,” RS, 31 October 1938, 1775–76. ⊂Abbās Maḥmud al-⊂Āqqad, “Min Dhikrayāt al-Ḥarb al-Maḍiyya,” RS, 11 September 1939, 1768–69. Nāji al-Tanṭāwi, “Hitlar,” RS, 11 September 1939, 1783–85.

31 āInān, “al-Fāshistiyya,” 849.

32 Sanhūri, “al-Nahḍāt,” 725–26. A similar view has recently been put forward in a scholarly work by Sternhell, Z., Neither Right nor Left: Fascist Ideology in France (Princeton, N.J., 1996).Google Scholar

33 ⊂Inān, “al-Fāshistiyya,” 849. See also the following essays by ⊂Inān: “Azmat al-Kuttāb wa-Maṣir al-Kutub,” RS, 6 August 1934, 1287–88; “Azmat al-Dimūqrāṭiyya,” 528; “Aḥlam al-Salām wa-Kayfa Inhārat fi Khamsat ⊂Ashr ⊂Āman?” RS, 21 October 1935, 1687–89; “Maārakat al-Fāshistiyya wa-al-Dimūqrāṭiyya,” RS, 27 December 1937, 2118–19.

34 Aḥmad Amin, “Fann al-Ḥukm,” RS, 6 September 1937, 1441–43; Fakhri Abū al-Sa⊂ūd, “al-Dimūqrāṭiyya wal-al-Intikhāb fi al-Tarbiya,” RS, 1 July 1935, 1056–59; Fakhri Abū al-Sa⊂ūd, “Athar NiĪām al-Ḥukm fi al-Adabayn al-⊂Arabi wa-al-lnjlizi,” RS, 7 December 1936, 1990–93.

35 Sanhūri, “al-Nahḍāt,” 726.

36 Jawād ⊂A1I, “⊂Aqidat al-Za⊂ma fi al-Nāziyya,” RS, 18 September 1939, 1825.

37 Muḥammad ⊂Abdallāh ⊂Inān, “ຒafar al-Makyāfiliyya,” RS, 31 January 1938, 167–69. See also Muḥammad Luṭfi Jum⊂a, “Taṭawwurāt al-⊂Aṣr al-Ḥadith fi al-Khulq al-Siyāsi,” RS, 16 January 1939, 108–10, and Gilbert, F., “Machiavellism,” in Dictionary of the History of Ideas, ed. Wiener, P. P., vol. 3 (New York, 1973), 116–26.Google Scholar

38 See, for example, Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt, “Nahdat al-Shabāb,” RS, 15 November 1933, 3–4; “Azmat al-DImūqrāṭiyya,” RS, 15 July 1935, 1157; Diblūmāsi Kabir, “al-Ma⊃sāh al-Fāshistiyya,” RS, 11 November 1935, 1809–11; Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt, “Ḥawla al-Dimūqrāṭiyya,” RS, 26 April 1937, 681–82; idem, “Ḥawla al-Dimūqrāṭiyya Ayḍan,” RS, 3 May 1937, 721–22; RS, 13 May 1935, 797–98; RS, 20 July 1936:1 1196; Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt, “Hadhā Rajul! …” RS, 1 May 1939, 847–48.

39 ⊂Inān, “al-Fāshistiyya,” 851.

40 Here, the intellectuals' writings indirectly reflect a mixture of intellectual influences and philosophical insights: the ideas of Alexis de Tocqueville and Ortega y Gasset, along with the inspiration of the Frankfurt School of Theodor Adorno and Walter Benjamin. See, for example, ⊂Inān, “al-Inqilābāt al-Siyāsiyya,” 927–29; idem, “Masra⊂ al-Ṣiḥāfa al-⊂Aຓima,” 809–12; Mu⊃rikh Kabir (⊂Abdallāh ⊂Inān?), “al-Ṣirā⊂ bayna al-Ṭughyān wa-al-Dimūqrāṭiyya,” 1887–89; Sanhūri, “al-Nahḍāt,” 725–27; “al-Thaqāfa al-Almāniyya fi ⊂Aṣr al-Nāzi,” RS, 28 September 1936, 1597–98; “al-Waṭaniyya wa-Isti⊂bād al-Fikr,” RS, 2 November 1936, 1816; “Naຓariyyāt Jadlda fi al-Fann wa-al-Naqd,” RS, 21 December 1936, 2095; Hindāwi, “Ittijāhāt al-Adab al-⊂ĀlamI,” part 1, 1333–34; part 2, 1377–80; ⊂Abbās Maḥmūd al-⊂Aqqād, “Iṣlāh al-Ṣiḥāfa,” RS, 28 November 1938, 1921–23; “al-Mar⊃a fi ຒill al-Diktātūriyya,” RS, 1 May 1939, 886–87; “al-Di⊂aya fi Almāniyā,” RS, 15 May 1939, 983; “al-DImūqrāṭiyya wa-al-Idhā⊂ah,” RS, 19 June 1939, 1221–22; ⊂Abbas Maḥmūd al-⊂Aqqād, “Ayna al-Kultūr?” RS, 9 October 1939, 1929–30; “Hitlar wa-al-Hitlariyya,” RS, 25 December 1939, 2359. Regarding the Frankfurt School, see, for example, Jay, M., The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute for Social Research 1923–1950 (London, 1973)Google Scholar; Wiggershaus, Rolf, The Frankfurt School: Its History, Theories, and Political Significance, trans. Robertson, M. (Cambridge, 1994).Google Scholar

41 ⊂Inān, “Azmat al-DImūqrāṭiyya,” 529–30.

42 Sanhūri, “al-Nahḍāt,” 725–26. See also ⊂lnān, “al-Fāshistiyya,” 850–51; idem, “ຒafar al-Makyāfi-liyya,” 167–69.

43 Amin, “Fann al-Ḥukm,” 1443. See also articles by Aḥmad Amin, RS, 2 July 1934, 1083–84; RS, 1 October 1934, 1603–4.

44 Editorial, “Ḥaqā⊃iq al-Ta⊃rikh,” RS, 10 September 1934, 1481–82, quotation from p. 1481. For a detailed treatment, see Gershoni, , Light in the Shade, chap. 2.Google Scholar

45 ⊂Inān, “Azmat al-Kuttāb,” 1287.

46 Idem, “Maṣra⊂ al-Ṣiḥāfa al-⊂Aຓima,” 809–12, quotation from p. 809. See also ⊂Aqqād, “Iṣlāḥ al-Ṣiḥāfa,” 1923.

47 ”A1-Waṭaniyya wa-Isti⊂bād al-Fikr,” RS, 2 November 1936, 1816.

48 ”Naຓariyāt Jadida fi al-Fann wa-al-Naqd,” RS, 21 December 1936, 2095.

49 ”A1-Adab al-Almānl fi al-Manfa,” RS, 23 March 1936, 479–80. See also “Miḥnat al-Ṣihāfa al-Almāniyya fi ຒill al-Irhāb al-Hitlari,” RS, 11 November 1935, 1797–98.

50 See, for example, “Hijrat al-Kuttāb wa-al-⊂Ulamā⊃ min Almāniyā, RS, 30 September 1935, 1598; “Min Ḍaḥāyā al-Nāzi,” RS, 21 October 1935, 1718; “al-Adab al-Almāni fi al-Manfa,” RS, 23 March 1936,479–80; “Tadahūr al-Ta⊂lim al-⊂Āli fi Almāniyā,” RS, 22 June 1936, 1037; “Kayfa Ya⊂malu al-Kuttāb fi Almāniyā al-Nāziyya,” RS, 30 November 1936, 1976: “Bayna al-Adab wa-al-Siyāsa,” RS, 1 December 1936, 2014; “Almāniyyā wa-Kuttābuhā al-Manfiyyūn,” RS, 1 February 1937, 198; “Thomas Mann wa-al-Jāma⊂āt al-Almāniyyā,” RS, 13 September 1937, 1517; “Diktaturiyyat Hitlar,” RS, 24 April 1939, 836; “al-Dicaya fi Almāniyyā,” RS, 15 May 1939, 983.

51 ”Al-Waṭaniyya wa-Isti⊂bād al-Fikr,” 1816. See also “al-Thaqāfa al-Almāniyyā fi ⊂Aṣr al-Nāzi,” RS, 28 September 1936, 1597–98.

52 Naຓariyāt Jadida fi al-Fann wa-al-Naqd,” 2095. See also “al-Di⊂āya fi Almāniyyā,” RS, 15 May 1939, 983; ⊂Inān, “Maṣra⊂ al-Ṣiḥāfa al-⊂Azima,” 809–12.

53 Sanhūri, “al-Nahḍat,” 725.

54 ⊂Inān, “al-Ṣirā⊂ bayna al-Ṭughyān wa-al-Dimūqrāṭiyya,” 1888.

55 Aḥmad Zaki, “al-⊂Unṣuriyya,” RS, 29 January 1934, 191.

56 See, for example, Muḥammad ⊂Abdallāh ⊂Inān, “al-Ḥaraka al-Waṭaniyya al-Ishtirāqiyya al-Almāniyyā,” part 2: “Marḥalat al-Kifaḥ wa-Bidāyat al-ຒafar,” RS, 8 January 1934, 14–16; Aḥmad Zaki, “al-⊂Unṣuriyya,” RS, 29 January 1934, 191–94; Muḥammad ⊂Awad Muḥammad, “al-Siyāsa wa-⊂Ilm al-Ajnās,” RS, 19 February 1934, 283–84; “Ḥawla Kitāb Hitlar (Mein Kampf),” RS, 27 August 1934, 1413; ⊂Abdallāh ⊂lnān, “Maṣra⊂ al-ṢiḤāfa al-⊂Aຒima,” RS, 20 May 1935, 809–12; idem, “Dhikrayāt ⊂an Qaḍiyyat Drayfus,” RS, 12 August 1935, 1290–93; Diblūmasi Kabir, “Riḥ al-Ta⊂aṣṣub al-Jinsi,” RS, 27 January 1936, 126–28; Khalll Hindāwi, “Ittijāhāt al-Adab al-⊂Ālami fi al-⊂Aṣr al-Ḥāḍir,” RS, 23 August 1937, 1377–80; “Maṣdar al-Hit-lariyya,” RS, 31 October 1938, 1775–76; “Hitlar,” RS, 8 May 1939, 906; ⊂Abd al-Raḥmān Shukri, “Mush-kilat al-Yahūd fi al-⊂ālam,” RS, 31 July 1939, 1485–87; Jawād ⊂Ali, “⊂Aqidat al-Za⊂āma fi al-Nāziyya,” RS, 18 September 1939, 1825–27; Jawād ⊂Ali, “⊂Aqidat al-Nāzi al-Diniyya,” RS, 27 November 1939, 2188–90.

57 Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt, “Fir⊂uniyyun wa-⊂Arab!” RS, 1 October 1933, 3–4.

58 Zaki, “al-⊂Unṣuriyya,” 191–94.

59 ⊂Awaḍ Muḥammad, “al-Siyāsa wa-⊂Ilm al-Ajnās,” 283–84.

60 ⊂Ali, “āAqidat al-Za⊂āma fi al-Nāziyya,” 1825–27.

61 See, in particular, Muḥammad ⊂Abdallāh ⊂Inan's early series of essays on German national socialism, which were written on the occasion of the first anniversary of Hitler's rise to power and were titled “al-Ḥaraka al-Waṭanyya al-lshtirākiyya al-Almāniyyā”: part 1, “Kayfa Nasha⊂at ba⊂da al-Ḥarb,” RS, 1 January 1934, 16–18; part 2, “Marḥalat al-Kifāḥ wa-Bidāyat al-Zafar,” RS, 8 January 1934, 14–16; part 3, “al-Barnāmij al-Dākhili fi Ṭawr al-Tanfidh,” RS, 15 January 1934, 11–15; part 4, “al-Barnāmij al-Khāriji fi Ṭawr al-Tanfidh,” RS, 22 January 1934, 9–11. See also ⊂Inān's following essays, “Azmat al-Kuttāb,” 1286–88; “Ḥarakāt al-Shabāb,” RS, 1 October 1934, 1609–12; “Naຓariyyat al-Istiqlāl al-Qawmi,” RS, 10 December 1934, 2006–8; “Maṣra⊂ al-Ṣiḥāfa al-⊂Aຓima,” 809–12; “al-Sirā⊂ bayna al-Ṭughyān wa-al-Dimūqrāṭiyya,” 1887–89; “Riḥ al-Ta⊂aṣṣub al-Jinsi,” RS, 27 January 1936, 126–28.

62 ⊂Inān, “al-Ḥaraka al-Waṭaniyya al-lshtirākiyya al-Almāniyyā,” part 3, 12–15; idem, “al-Fāshis-tiyya,” 850; idem, “al-Ṣirā⊂ bayna al-ṭughyān wa-al-Dimūqrāṭiyya,” 1888–89; idem, “Riḥ al-Ta⊂aṣṣub al-Jinsi,” 127.

63 ldem, “al-Ḥaraka al-Waṭaniyya al-lshtirākiyya al-Almāniyyā,” part 3, 14–15.

64 For a detailed analysis of the Nuremberg Laws and their impact on German-Jewish relations in the Third Reich, see Friedlander, S., Nazi Germany and the Jews: The Years of Persecution 1933–1939 (London, 1997), in particular 113–73.Google Scholar

65 ”Naຓariyyāt al-Jins wa-al-Dam fi Almāniyyā,” RS, 26 August 1935, 1398. See also “al-ṭibb wa-al-Ḥaraka al-Hitlariyya,” RS, 12 October 1936, 1677–78.

66 ”Al-Ḥaraka al-Fikriyya al-⊂Unṣuriyya fi Almāniyi,” RS, 9 November 1936, 1856. See also RS, 3 February 1936, 195.

67 ”Madhhab al-Ta⊂qim” RS, 4 September 1939, 1756.

68 ”Jil Namūdhaji fi Almāniyyā al-Hitlariyya,” RS, 8 March 1937, 395. See also “Taṭawwur Nuຓum al-Tarbiya al-Almāniyyā,” RS, 4 May 1936, 755–56; RS, 14 September 1936, 1517; RS, 3 October 1938, 1635–36; RS, 25 September 1939, 1877–78.

69 ”Naຓariyyāt al-Jins wa-al-Dam,” RS, 26 August 1935, 1398.

70 ”Mas⊃alat al-Ajnās,” RS, 10 August 1936, 1317.

71 ”Naຓariyyāt al-Jins wa-al-Sulāla,” RS, 18 November 1935, 1878. See also Huxley, J. and Haddon, A., We Europeans: A Survey of “Racial” Problems (London, 1935).Google Scholar

72 ”Naຓariyyāt al-Jins wa-al-Sulāla wa-al-Khuṣūma al-Sāmiyya,” RS, 28 October 1935, 1758–59. See also Browne, L., How Odd of God: An Introduction to the Jews (London, 1935). On al-Risāla's rejection of anti-Semitism, see also RS, 30 March 1935, 518–19; RS, 13 April 1936, 597–98; RS, 29 June 1936, 1073–74; Khalil Hindāwi, “Ittijāhāt al-Adab al-⊂Ālami fi al-⊂Aṣr al-Ḥāḍir,” RS, 16 August 1937, 1335; “Hitlar wa-al-Sāmiyya,” RS, 31 October 1938, 1795; “Bayna al-Islām wa-al-Yahūdiyya,” RS, 12 December 1938, 2037; editorial by Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt, RS, 24 April 1939, 800; “al-Islām al-al-Di⊂aya al-Nāziyya,” RS, 10 April 1939, 746; RS, 28 August 1939, 1707–8.Google Scholar

73 ”Taqdir Sḥifa Almāniyyā li-Umma Sāmiyya,” RS, 14 June 1937, 996.

74 See, for example, the following essays by Muḥammad ⊂Abdallāh ⊂lnān in RS, 22 January 1934, 9–11; RS, 4 June 1934, 927–29; RS, 18 June 1934, 1008–11; RS, 3 September 1934, 1446–48; RS, 24 September 1934, 1566–69; RS, 5 November 1934, 1815–17; RS, 11 November 1935, 1809–11; RS, 25 November 1935, 1887–89; RS, 21 October 1935, 1687–89; RS, 1 June 1936, 887–89; RS, 23 November 1936, 1910–13; RS, 21 December 1936, 2063–65; RS, 8 November 1937, 1804–6; RS, 31 January 1938, 167–69. Editorials by Zayyāt in RS, 9 September 1935, 1441–42; RS, 30 September 1935, 1561–62; RS, 28 October 1935, 1721–22; RS, 31 May 1937, 881–82; Sanhūri in RS, 4 May 1936, 726–27; ⊂Aqqād in RS, 6 September 1937, 1444–45.

75 See, for example, the editorials by Zayyat, RS, 5 August 1935, 1241–42; RS, 9 September 1935, 1441–42; RS, 28 October 1935, 1721–22; ⊂Abd al-Wahhāb ⊂Azzām in RS, 30 September 1935, 1561–62; the series of articles by Ṭaha al-Hāshimi (at the time the Iraqi chief of staff) on the Ethiopian war published weekly in RS, all issues from 28 October to 9 December 1935; RS, 9 December 1935, 1993–94; RS, 19 October 1936, 1716; RS, 26 April 1937, 712; the essays by ⊂Inān, RS, 24 December 1934, 2088–91; RS, 7 January 1935, 6–9; RS, 21 October 1935, 1728–30; RS, 11 November 1935, 1809–11; RS, 6 January 1936, 7–9; RS, 11 May 1936, 767–69; RS, 1 June 1936, 887–89; RS, 23 November 1936, 1910–13; RS, 6 December 1937, 1965–67.

76 See, in particular, the essays by ⊂Inān, RS, 16 April 1934, 608–11; RS, 30 April 1934, 726–29; RS, 13 July 1936, 1127–29; RS, 24 August 1936, 1365–67; RS, 9 November 1936, 1833–35; RS, 1 December 1936, 1985–88; RS, 18 January 1937, 87–89; RS, 5 April 1937, 605–7; RS, 31 May 1937, 888–91; RS, 7 June 1937, 927–30; RS, 21 June 1937, 1010–12.

77 See, for example, the articles by ⊂Abbās Maḥmūd al-⊂Aqqād in RS, 6 September 1937, 1444–45; RS, 4 October 1937, 1603–5; RS, 13 December 1937, 2003–5; RS, 27 December 1937, 2083–87; by Ibrāhim ⊂Abd al-Qādir al-Māzini in RS, 4 October, 1937, 1601–3; RS, 18 October 1937, 1681–83; and by ⊂Inān in RS, 13 July 1936, 1127–29; RS, 24 August 1936, 1365–67; RS, 9 November 1936, 1833–35; RS, 23 November 1936, 1910–13; RS, 10 May 1937, 770–72; RS, 8 November 1937, 1804–6; RS, 31 January 1938, 167–69.

78 See, for example, the series of articles by Yūsuf Haykal in RS, 29 August 1938,1406–10; RS, 5 December 1938, 1978–81; RS, 12 December 1938, 2015–17; RS, 26 December 1938, 2093–94; RS, 2 January 1939, 20–21; RS, 9 January 1939, 65–67; RS, 23 January 1939, 160–62; RS, 13 February 1939, 291–94; RS, 25 September 1939, 1849–51; by Zayyāt in RS, 26 September 1938, 1561–62; RS, 1 May 1939, 847–48; by Muḥammad Luṭfi Jum⊂a in RS, 16 January 1939, 108–10; by ⊂Aqqād in RS, 11 September 1939, 1767–69; RS, 9 October 1939, 1929–30; RS, 18 December 1939, 2289–90; by Māzini in RS, 18 September 1939, 1807–9; by Nāji al-Ṭanṭawi in RS, 11 September 1939, 1783–85. See also RS, 24 April 1939, 836; RS, 22 May 1939, 1028; RS, 29 May 1939, 1078; RS, 19 June 1939, 1221–22; RS, 24 July 1939, 1468–70; RS, 7 August 1939, 1565–66; RS, 9 October 1939, 1954–55; RS, 16 October 1939, 1988; RS, 23 October 1939, 2025–26; RS, 6 November 1939, 2080; RS, 20 November 1939, 2169–70; RS, 27 November 1939, 2208–9; RS, 4 December 1939,2243–44; RS, 11 December 1939,2279;RS, 18December 1939,2317–18.

79 Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt, “Jarirat al-Nāziyya ⊂alā al-Insāniyya,” RS, 9 October 1939, 1927–28. See also Aḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt, “Siyāsat al-Samak!” RS, 11 December 1939, 2251–52.

80 See Plamenatz, J., “Liberalism,” Dictionary of the History of Ideas, 3:36–61Google Scholar; S. R. Graubard, “Democracy,” in Ibid., 1:652–67.

81 Gershoni, Light in the Shade, chap. 2; idem, ”Confronting Nazism in Egypt—Tawfiq al-Hakim's Anti-Totalitarianism, 1938–1945,” Tel-Aviver Jahrbuch fur deutsche Ceschichte 26 (1997): 121–50.Google Scholar

82 Smith, , “The ‘Crisis of Orientation’,” 384, 399–405, 407–9; idem, Islam and the Search for Social Order, 86–87, 105–8, 125–32, 144–57, 181–86.Google Scholar