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The 1912 Election Campaign in the Cities of Bilad Al- Sham

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 January 2009

Rashid Ismail Khalidi
Rashid Ismail Khalidi
Affiliation:
Georgetown University
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Extract

In a region which has witnessed so many violent seizures of power, violations of constitutional legality, and myriad varieties of dictatorship over the past few decades, it is often easy to forget that many parts of the Middle East enjoyed elements of democracy, including freedom of speech and assembly, a free press, and hotly contested elections, as far back as the late Ottoman period.

Type
Articles
Information
International Journal of Middle East Studies , Volume 16 , Issue 4 , November 1984 , pp. 461 - 474
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1984

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References

Autho's Note: I would like to acknowledge the research assistance of Ms. Caroline Atiyeh and the support of the A.U.B. Art and Sciences Research Committee, whose help made this study possible.Google Scholar

1 For more on the politics of this period in bilad al-Sham, see Khalidi, Rashid Ismail, British Policy Towards Syria and Palestine 1906–1914 (London, 1980), Chapters 4–6;Google Scholar and Khoury, Philip S.. Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism: The Politics of Damascus, 1860–1920 (Cambridge, 1983), ch. 3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

2 Not covered in the paper which follows (although it falls within the area of bilad al-Sham) is the mutesarrfiyya of Mount Lebanon, which did not send deputies to the Ottoman Parliament.Google Scholar

3 The only historian to give attention to this important phenomenon has been Tibawi, A. L. in A Modern History of Syria (London, 1969), pp. 168–170, 181–182, 194–196.Google Scholar For a primary source which includes masses of raw data on the subject as far as the vilayet of Beirut is concerned see al-Tamimi, R. and Bahjat, M., Wilayat Bayrut (Beirut, 1916; reprinted Beirut, 1969).Google Scholar

4 This was reported by the correspondent of the Cairo daily al-Muqaliam, in an article reprinted in al-Mufid, no. 903 (February 8, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar

5 A discussion of some of the social dimensions of pre-World War I Syrian politics can be found in Khalidi's, “Social Factors in the Rise of the Arab Movement in Syria,” in Arjomand, S., ed., From Nationalism to Revolutionary Islam (Albany, 1984).Google Scholar

6 The best account of this period in Ottoman history is Ahmad, F., The Young Turks (Oxford, 1969), pp. 99–104.Google Scholar

7 Al-Mufid, no. 875 (January 7, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar The negotiations between the two parties in the capital are reported in al-Mufid, no. 872 (January 3, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar

8 See, e.g., al-Mufid, no. 885 (January 18, 1912), p. 1;Google Scholar and no. 892 (January 27, 1912), p. 1, and al-Muqiabas, no. 882 (January 20, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

9 Reports on the shift towards the Entente and away from the C.U.P. were numerous: al-Mufid, no. 874 (January 6, 1912), p. 1 and p. 2;Google Scholar no. 875 (January 7, 1912), p. 2, and al-Muqiahas, no. 877 (January 14, 1912), p. 3;Google Scholar no. 878 (January 15, 1912), p. 1, and Lissan al-Hal (a Unionist paper), no. 6855 (January 5, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar

10 Al-Muqtabas, no. 884 (January 22, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

11 See, e.g., Lissan al-Hal no. 6861 (January 12, 1912), p. 2 reporting speeches by “former deputies” – all members of the opposition.Google Scholar

12 A1-Muqtabas, no. 882 (January 20, 1912), p. 2; see also no. 884 (Januray 3, 1912), p.1 for an editorial by Haqqi al-'Azm in Cairo warning that C.U.P. pressures and interference in the election were to be expected.Google Scholar

13 Lissan al-Hal no. 6860 (January 10, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

14 Reprinted in al-Mufid, no. 930 (May 14, 1912), p. 3.Google ScholarAl-Mufid detected this pattern early on: no. 894 (January 29, 1912), p. 2; and no. 895 (January 30, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar

15 Filastin, no. 113–12 (February 21, 1912), p. 1, citing the leading C.U.P. Turkish-language paper, Tanin, and other CUP. organs.Google Scholar

16 Lissan al-Hal, no. 6861 (February 12, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar

17 Lissan al-Hal, no. 6879 (March 6, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

18 Filastin, no. 112–11 (February 17, 1912), p. 2;Google Scholar and Lissan al-Hal no. 6861 (February 12, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

19 Al-Muqiabas, no. 900 (February 10, 1912), p. 2;Google Scholar and al-Mufid, no. 904 (February 10, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

20 Filastin, no. 107–6 (January 31, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

21 Lissan al-Hal, no. 6872 (February 27, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

22 Al-Mufid, no. 933 (March 18, 1912), p. 1 and no. 937 (March 23, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar

23 Public Record Office, F.O. 800/193B/82: Fitzmaurice to Tyrrell, June 5, 1912.Google Scholar

24 No history of the press in bilad al-Sham during this period exists, but by a rough count a majority of the numerous papers appearing at the time opposed the C.U.P. A discussion of this subject can be found in Khalidi, R., “The Press as a Source for Modern Arab Political History,” Arab Studies Quarterly, 3, 1 (Winter 1981), pp. 22–42.Google Scholar

25 Al-Mufid, no. 911 (February 18, 1912), p. 1. (an editorial entitled “Why We Oppose the Committee: Turkification of the Nationalities”).Google Scholar

26 Al-Muqtabas, no. 888 (January 27, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

27 Al-Mufid, no. 923 (March 6, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

28 Al-Muqtabas, no. 895 (February 4, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

29 Al-Haqiqa, no. 428 (March 21, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

30 Al-Muqtabas, no. 889 (January 28, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

31 Al-Mufid, no. 897 (January 31, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

32 Al-Mufid, no. 934 (March 19, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

33 Lissan al-Hal, no. 6844 (January 22, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

34 Al-Muqrabas, no. 893 (February 1, 1912), p. 1, quoting al-Muqauam as saying that Shuqayr had become discredited in the eyes of his countrymen since he opposed the requests of his fellow Arab deputies that Ottoman laws be translated from Turkish to Arabic so that the ordinary citizen in the Arab vilayets could understand them.Google Scholar

35 Al-Mufid, no. 908 (February 14, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

36 Filastin, no. 112–11 (February 17, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

37 Lissan al-Hal, no. 6871 (February 12, 1912), p. 2; and no. 6862 (February 13, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

38 A1-Muqrabas, no.900 (February 2, 1912), p. 3;Google Scholar and al-Mufid, no. 904 (February 2, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar

39 Al-Mufid, no. 906 (February 12, 1912), p. 2 and no. 908 (February 14, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

40 Al-Mufid, no. 905 (February 11, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

41 Al-Mufid, no. 907 (February 13, 1912), p. 1, was categorical in its description of the rally: “Beirut has never seen a speaker like Lutfi Fikri…”Google Scholar

42 Al-Mufid, no.911 (February 18, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

43 Ibid., p. 3.

44 Al-Mufid, no. 910 (February 17, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

45 Al-Mufid, no. 906 (February 12. 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

46 Ibid.

47 Al-Mufid, no. 925 (March 3, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar

48 Ibid., p. 1.

49 Lissan al-Hal, no. 6869 (February 21, 1912), p. 2; and no. 6871 (February 23, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar See also al-Mufid, no. 915 (February 22, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar

50 Lissan al-Hal, no. 6869 (February 21, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

51 Al-Mufid, no. 925 (March 9, 1912), pp. 1 and 3.Google Scholar

52 Al-Mufid, no. 931 (March 16, 1912), pp. 1 and 3.Google Scholar

53 Filasgin, no. 121–20 (March 3, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

54 On illegal actions by government officials on behalf of the C.U.P. in these areas see: al-Haqiqa, no. 425 (March 11, 1912), p. 1 and no. 428 (March 21, 1912), p. 1; al-Mufid, no. 933 (March 18, 1912). p. 1, no. 934 (March 19, 1912), p. 2, no. 936 (March 21, 1912), p. 1, no. 937 (March 23, 1912), p. 2, no. 938 (March 24, 1912), pp. 2 and 3, no. 940 (March 26, 1912), p. 2, no. 941 (March 27, 1912), p. 3, no. 952 (April, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar

55 The attack, on Shukri al-'Asali, is reported in al-Mufid, no. 935 (March 20, 1912), p. 3, and followed a detailed article by al-'Asali in al-Muqtabas listing the illegal means being used by the C.U.P. to win the elections – al-Mufid, no. 928 (March 12, 1912). p. 3. Al-Muqtabas was apparently closed down briefly at about this time by the authorities, although evidence on the matter is lacking. For other C.U.P. actions in Damascus, see al-Mufid, no. 935 (March 20, 1912), p. 1; no. 942 (March 28, 1912), p. 3; and no. 948 (April 4, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar

56 Reprinted in al-Mufid, no. 958 (April 16, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar See also al-Muqattam, no. 7013 (March 24, 1912). p. l; and no. 7006 (April 16, 1912), p. 4.Google Scholar

57 Lissan al-Hal, no. 6893 (March 23, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

58 Filastin, no. 121–20 (March 20, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

59 Al-Mufid, no. 900 (February 5, 1912), p. 3.Google Scholar

60 Al-Mufid, no. 938 (March 24. 1912), pp. 2 and 3;Google Scholaral-Ittihad al-'Uthmani, no. 1060 (March 25, 1912), p. 2;Google Scholaral-Muqattam. no. 6996 (April 2, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

61 Al-Mufid, no. 938 (March 24, 1912), pp. 2 and 3.Google Scholar

62 Al-Mufid, no. 939 (March 25, 1912). p. 3, and no. 941 (March 27, 1912), p. 2;Google Scholar and al-Muqattam, no. 6996 (April 2, 1912), p. 1.Google Scholar

63 Bribery and promises of government aid were apparently also used widely. Al-Mufid, no. 952 (April 9, 1912), p. 2 carried a report that Entente members in Baalbek went to Damascus to negotiate with the vali their returning to the C.U.P. on five conditions involving district improvements in public services; the report commented that it is no surprise if people are reluctant to pass up benefits for their regions. See also Ahmad, The Young Turks, p. 103, for details of this practice on a wider scale.Google Scholar

64 Cited in al-Mufid, no. 947 (April 3, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

65 Lissan al-Hal, no. 6899 (March 30, 1912), p. 1. The report is given prominence on the first page.Google Scholar

66 Al-Mufid, no. 938 (March 24, 1912), p. 2; no. 939 (March 25, 1912), p. 3; and no. 941 (March 27, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

67 This is reported in al-Muqattam, no. 6997 (April 3, 1912), p. 1;Google Scholaral-Haqiqa, no. 428 (March 21, 1912), p. 2;Google ScholarFilastin, no. 117–6 (March 6, 1912), p. 2;Google Scholar and al-Mufid, no. 943 (March 30, 1912), p. 2. See the list of deputies elected in the Syrian vilayets in all three elections in Khalidi, British Policy, pp. 258–259.Google Scholar

68 The story is covered in al-Mufid, no. 965 (April 24, 1912), p. 3, no. 966 (April 25, 1912), p. 2, no. 969 (March 29, 1912), p. 2;Google ScholarLissan al-Hal, no. 6925 (May 1, 1912), p. 1;Google Scholar and al-Mufid, no. 972 (May 5, 1912), p. 3. no. 976 (May 7, 1912), p. 3, and no. 988 (May 21, 1912), p. 2.Google Scholar

69 The article is in al-Mufid, no. 995 (May 28, 1912), p. 1. It reappeared as Sada al-Mufid on May 30, 1912.Google Scholar

70 Al-Mufid, no. 958 (April 16, 1912). pp. 1 and 2.Google Scholar For more on Ahmad 'Arefal-Zayn, Muhammad Kurd 'Ali and al-' Uraisi, see the articles by Khalidi, Tarif, Seikaly, Samir, and Khalidi, Rashid Ismail in Buheiri, M., ed., Intellectual Life in the Arab East 1890–1939 (Beirut, 1981).Google Scholar