The Archaeology of the Nātha Sampradāya in Western India, 12th to 15th Century is based on Sarde's doctoral research. Previous scholarly endeavors on the Nātha sampradāya (sect or tradition) have predominantly relied on textual and ethnographic analyses to understand its emergence (Alter Reference Alter2009; Bouillier Reference Bouillier2017; Jugnu Reference Jugnu2019; Mallinson Reference Mallinson2007, Reference Mallinson, Jacobsen, Basu, Malinar and Narayanan2011). This book re-examines the Nātha sampradāya through the analysis of archeological data from over 500 archeological sites in Maharashtra, western India. This now-pan-Indian sect has multiple dimensions: their Haṭhayoga and tantric practices, historiography, stories, legends, beliefs about Matsyendra-Goraksha and Navanāths in society, and mysticism. Sarde historicizes the Nātha tradition, examining the influences exerted by this sect on iconography and yogic practices; and influences on it by other sects and practices within Hinduism and Buddhism. He asks a fundamental question: What factors in the varied cultural milieu of Maharashtra contributed to the blending of various philosophical traditions around the twelfth century, ultimately leading to the emergence of the Nātha sampradāya?
The book is divided into six chapters, each covering a different aspect of the Nātha sampradāya's history and evolution. In the introduction, Sarde delves into the etymology of the term “nātha,” derived from the Sanskrit root “nāth,” signifying “lord, master, protector, shelter” (p. 1). He employs the concept of a cultural landscape as a methodological tool to contextualize religious architecture, perceiving them not in isolation but as located “within larger cultural landscapes that help establish spatial relationships not only with other contemporary religious architecture but also with water bodies and funerary monuments, all of which formed a part of the sacred microcosm” (p. 3). Sarde outlines the prevalence of temples accompanied by monasteries housing ascetics in western India during the eleventh century, alongside the existence of a diverse network of Shaiva sects. By thoroughly elucidating the significance of studying religious architecture within a broader cultural framework for understanding the historical and cultural context of the Nātha tradition, Sarde establishes the groundwork for the subsequent chapters. In the latter half of the introduction, a survey of secondary writings related to Nātha sampradāya is presented along with an overview of text-based works in Sanskrit such as Kaulajñānanirṇaya, Matsyendrasaṃhitā, Amṛtasiddhi, Dattātreyayogaśāstra, and Khecarīvidyā.
The sacred meaning read into the geography of the Deccan region is deciphered in Chapters 2 and 3. Chapter 2, “Early Marathi Literature: Beginnings of the Nātha Tradition,” explores the emergence of an institutionalized form of the Nātha sampradāya in Maharashtra during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries through the study of Līḷācaritra and other Marathi literature. This chapter also delves into the relationship between archeological evidence and textual accounts, presenting both as complementary sources of information. According to Sarde, the Nātha Siddha tradition originated in the Deccan during the twelfth century and spread to other parts of the Indian subcontinent within a few hundred years. The full emergence of the Nātha tradition in Maharashtra during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries can be attributed to the support and patronage of the Yādava dynasty. These rulers, whose presence is evident in the inscriptions of the Rāṣṭrakuṭa dynasty from the seventh to the tenth century, later established their own independent kingdom between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries. The Nātha sampradāya flourished in this particular time and place due to the patronage of the rulers of a kingdom. In Chapter 3, “The Archaeological Evidence: Sacred Landscapes in Western India,” the focus shifts to analyzing archeological and architectural remains in western India. The diverse landscape of Maharashtra is covered in the survey of the religious landscape presented in this chapter. The reader is taken to sites such as temples, images, rock-cut caves, monasteries, minor inscriptions, sculptural panels, mural paintings, and toraṇa (fort) gates. Sarde explains, “Temples emerged as an important and influential institution in medieval India, patronized by almost all classes of society” (p. 41). The chapter further outlines that one of the principal gurus of the Nātha sampradāya, Matsyendra, was related to Kaula practices demonstrating that the archeological evidence of the Nātha tradition is scattered across western India with most evidence located in rock-cut caves and temples.
Sarde embarks on deciphering the images of Nātha yogis found in their western India iconography – the various seated and non-seated āsanas (postures) which developed over time – in Chapter 4, “The Iconography of Devotion: Images of Nātha Yogis in Context.” Sarde explains, “There are many Nātha yogis whose images are yet to be identified” (p. 90), largely due to unknown iconography and the absence of written text. The appearance of Nātha yogis is also described as wearing features such as the yogapaṭṭa (band), śṛṅgī (horn made of antler), kuṇḍala Footnote 1 ear adornment, yajñopavīta (sacred thread), sonṭā (wooden staff), headdress, mekhalā (waistband), adhārī (a wooden club with flat horizontal top), kamaṇḍalu (vase), Jholā (bag), and ḍamarū (small hourglass-shaped drum), sumaraṇī, kanṭhahāra (necklaces), valaya (wristlets), and keyūra (armlets). Based on this, Sarde details various Nātha yogis such as Matsyendra, Adinātha, Girija, Minanātha, Chaurangi, Goraksha, Virupaksha, Kanha, Jalandhara, Siddha Nagārjuna, Vinapa, Vajraghantapa, Khadgapa, Kankalipa, and description of unknown Siddhas and Nātha yogis. Along with discovering new stone images of the Nātha yogis, this chapter lays the groundwork related to the appearance of the Nātha yogis through iconographic evidence, which also helps the reader understand the following chapter.
Chapter 5, “Haṭhayoga: The Visual Record,” traces the origins of Haṭhayoga, which became an epitome of the Nātha sampradāya. Haṭhayoga, known as “the yoga of force” (p. 130), has distinctive features of āsanas (body postures) for meditation and ascetic practices to control and manipulate the prāṇa (ether) and the bindu (semen) not only through the mind, but through the bodymind. Sarde discusses how the term Haṭha was related to the Buddhist tantras and was absent in Shaiva tantras until much later. Rather than elaborating in detail, Sarde only briefly mentions that in Buddhist practice, Haṭha was related to non-celibate practices. In contrast, in the Shaiva and Vaishnava yoga texts, Haṭha is related to celibate practices, which are associated with the word Haṭha as we use it in today's zeitgeist. There is a particular emphasis on analyzing temple iconography and sculptural depictions, highlighting the importance of the visual in the archeological. These visual representations offer valuable insights into adopting and implementing Haṭhayoga practices. Chapter 6, the conclusion, discusses the influence of the Nātha tradition beyond western India. These regions include Nepal, Central India (Ujjain, Khajuraho, Gwalior, and Maheshvar), Bengal and Assam, Orrisa, Goa, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Sarde explores the influence of the Nātha tradition in these diverse areas by examining archeological findings and textual evidence, highlighting the provenance of the earliest instances of the Nātha tradition having emerged in western India. Sarde highlights the need to research texts and documents in regional languages to understand unidentified postures and practices. Tantra and alchemy in Nātha sampradāya are other exciting avenues of research along with the ethnography of Nātha tradition in Maharashtra.
The book's main contribution is to study the Nātha sampradāya through archeological evidence for the first time. Regarding the question about the origin and development of the Nātha tradition, Sarde suggests that it originated mainly in northern and central Maharashtra. Sarde reached this finding based on his examination of archeological data and early Marathi devotional literature. The book analyzes the archeological evidence of Nātha sampradāya from various sites in western India, such as temples and rock-cut caves, and interprets the iconography and sculptural representations of Nātha yogis found in those locations. Sarde's approach involved a comprehensive survey of these archeological remains and their contextualization within the broader cultural landscape of Maharashtra during the twelfth to fifteenth centuries. Sarde's conclusions are based on a combination of archeological evidence, analysis of iconography, examination of early Marathi literature, and paves the way for critical reassessments of previous scholarly work on the subject. Overall, the book aims to shed new light on the Nātha sampradāya by providing a comprehensive study of its archeological evidence, regional specificities, and its place within the larger context of asceticism in early India.
In the present day, Nātha sects primarily thrive in Nepal, although they can also be found in other regions near and in the Himalayas, such as certain areas in northern India and Bengal (Alter Reference Alter2009). Alter (Reference Alter2009) has also noted this sect's influence on the drumming traditions of the Garhwal Himalaya. His work on the influence of Nātha sampradāya on two rhythmic instruments from Uttarakhand, namely ḍhol-damauñ, suggests a link between them by discussing the text of drumming, named Ḍholsāgar (Ocean of Drumming) and how it is framed as a conversation between Śiva and Pārvatī like most tantric texts. Alter (Reference Alter2009) mentions that “Śiva's close association to the drum links all Nāths to the drum even though they are not necessarily drummers by caste” (p. 190).
There is an intriguing possibility to explore the potential connections between the Nātha tradition, as documented by Sarde in western India, and the Nātha tradition in the Himalayas, particularly in relation to Himalayan drumming using ḍhol-damauñ instruments. This raises the question of whether there exists a historical and cultural link between these two regions through the Nātha tradition and its influence on drumming practices. Further investigation could shed light on the interplay between these traditions and contribute to a deeper understanding of their shared roots and influences. However, Sarde points out that the early yogis from this tradition, such as Matsyendranāth and Gorakshanāth in early documents, have been addressed without the “nātha” suffix. Moreover, there are many humans, deities, and places where the word nātha is used without connection to Nātha sampradāya. The word Nātha may be older than the Nātha tradition. For instance, one of the most revered abodes of Śiva in Garhwal Himalaya known as Kedarnāth, said to have been built by Adi Shankaracharya in the eighth century, also uses the nātha suffix. Sarde accordingly points out that “it is not fair to say that every place, god, yogi, saint, or person is associated with the Nātha sampradāya” (p. 2).
Throughout the book, Sarde's use of archeological evidence alongside textual accounts provides a comprehensive picture of this religious tradition and its complex genealogy. The Archaeology of the Nātha Sampradāya in Western India, 12th to 15th Century offers a comprehensive and insightful analysis of the emergence and development of the Nātha sampradāya in western India during the twelfth to fifteenth century. The book provides a comprehensive analysis of the archeological evidence related to the Nātha sampradāya, including their temples, sculptures, inscriptions, and other artifacts. Sarde has drawn from various sources, including primary texts, epigraphs, and field surveys, to provide a detailed and nuanced picture of the Nātha sampradāya and its influence on the society and culture of western India and beyond. The book will interest students, scholars, and readers in archeology, South Asian ethnography, Hindu studies, yoga studies, religious studies, psychology of religion, and ancient meditative traditions of India.
