Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T22:33:15.910Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Saving Children from a Life of Crime: the Benefits Greatly Outweigh the Costs!

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

David P. Farrington  and
Brandon C. Welsh
David P. Farrington
Affiliation:
Cambridge University
Brandon C. Welsh
Affiliation:
Northeastern University, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Visiting Professor and Senior Research Fellow, Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

This article reviews some of the most effective programmes for saving children from a life of crime, and also presents the results of cost-benefit analyses of some of these programmes. The best programmes include general parent education in home visiting programmes, parent management training, pre-school intellectual enrichment programmes, child skills training, Functional Family Therapy, Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care and Multisystemic Therapy. Communities That Care is a useful overarching programme. Most of these programmes have been shown to reduce crime and save money. The time is ripe to establish national agencies in all countries which will advance knowledge about early risk factors (from longitudinal studies) and about effective developmental interventions (from randomized experiments and cost-benefit analyses).

Résumé

Résumé

Cet article passe en revue quelques-uns des programmes les plus performants visant à préserver les enfants d'une vie criminelle, et présente aussi les résultats d'une analyse coûts-bénéfices de certains de ces programmes. Les meilleurs programmes incluent une éducation générale des parents dans des programmes de visite à domicile, une formation à la gestion parentale, des programmes d'enrichissement intellectuel avant la scolarité, le développement des compétences des enfants, la thérapie familiale fonctionnelle, l'attachement à encourager le traitement multidimentionnel, et la thérapie multisystémique. “Communautés attentives” est un programme global qui est utile. La plupart de ces programmes se sont révélés productifs en termes de réduction du crime et d’économies. Les temps sont mûrs pour établir des agences nationales dans tous les pays qui veulent gagner en connaissance des facteurs de risques précoces (par des etudes longitudinales) et des interventions développementales effectives (par des expériences au hasard et des analyses coûts-bénéfices).

Resumen

Resumen

Este artículo revisa algunos de los programas más efectivos para proteger a los menores de una vida criminal y presenta también los resultados de un análisis de costes-beneficios en algunos de estos programas. Los mejores programas incluyen una educación general de los padres en programas de visita a domicilio, una formación en la gestión parental, programas de enriquecimiento intelectual antes de la escolarización, el desarrollo de competencias de los menores, la terapia familiar funcional, el cuidado tutelar terapéutico multidimensional y la terapia multisistémica. Las “comunidades de atención” (« Communities That Care ») es un programa global que resulta útil. La mayor parte de estos programas han demostrado ser productivos en términos de reducción de la delincuencia y de ahorro económico. Ha llegado el momento de establecer organismos nacionales en todos los países que quieran adquirir conocimientos sobre los factores de riesgo precoces (a partir de estudios longitudinales) y sobre intervenciones de desarrollo eficaces (a partir de experimentos aleatorios y análisis de costes-beneficios).

Keywords

developmental preventioncost-benefit analysisrandomized experimentsfamily preventionskills training
Type
Research Article
Information
International Annals of Criminology , Volume 52 , Issue 1-2 , 2014 , pp. 67 - 92
Copyright
Copyright © 2014 International Society for Criminology 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, J. F. & Parsons, B. V. (1973). Short-term behavioral intervention with delinquent families: Impact on family process and recidivism. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 81, 219–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aos, S., Barnoski, R. & Lieb, R. (1998). Preventive programs for young offenders effective and cost-effective. Overcrowded Times 9(2), 1, 7–11.Google Scholar
Aos, S., & Drake, E. K. (2010). Fight crime and save money. Olympia, Washington: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.Google Scholar
Aos., S., Lieb, L. Mayfield, J., Miller, M. & Pennucci, A. (2004). Benefits and costs of prevention and early intervention programs for youth. Olympia, Washington: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.Google Scholar
Aos, S., Miller, M. G. & Drake, E. K. (2006). Evidence-based public policy options to reduce future prison construction, criminal justice costs, and crime rates. Olympia, Washington: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.Google Scholar
Augimeri, L. K., Farrington, D. P., Koegl, C. J. & Day, D. M. (2007). The SNAP Under 12 Outreach Project: Effects of a community based program for children with conduct problems. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16, 799–807.Google Scholar
Augimeri, L. K., Walsh, M. M., Liddon, A. D., Dassinger, C. R. (2011). From risk identification to risk management: A comprehensive strategy for young children engaged in antisocial behavior. In Springer, D. W. & Roberts, A. (eds.), Juvenile justice and delinquency (pp. 117–140). Sudbury, Massachusetts: Jones & Bartlett.Google Scholar
Baldwin, S. A., Christian, S., Berkeljon, A., Shadish, W. & Bean, R. (2012). The effects of family therapies for adolescent delinquency and substance abuse: A meta-analysis. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 38, 281–304.Google Scholar
Barton, C., Alexander, J. F., Waldron, H., Turner, C. W., & Warburton, J. (1985). Generalizing treatment effects of functional family therapy: Three replications. American Journal of Family Therapy, 13, 16–26.Google Scholar
Berrueta-Clement, J. R., Schweinhart, L. J., Barnett, W. S., Epstein, A. S., & Weikart, D. P. (1984). Changed Lives: The effects of the Perry Preschool Program on youths through age 19. Ypsilanti, Michigan: High/Scope Press.Google Scholar
Bilukha, O., Hahn, R. A., Crosby, A., Fullilove, M. T., Liberman, A., Moscicki, E., Snyder, S., Tuma, F., Corso, P., Schofield, A. & Briss, P. A. (2005). The effectiveness of early childhood home visitation in preventing violence. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28 (2S1), 11–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boisjoli, R., Vitaro, F., Lacourse, E., Barker, E. D., & Tremblay, R. E. (2007). Impact and clinical significance of a preventive intervention for disruptive boys. British Journal of Psychiatry, 191, 415–419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borduin, C. M., Mann, B. J., Cone, L. T., Henggeler, S. W., Fucci, B. R., Blaske, D. M., & Williams, R. A. (1995). Multisystemic treatment of serious juvenile offenders: Long-term prevention of criminality and violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 569–587.Google Scholar
Burke, J. D. & Loeber, R. (in press). The effectiveness of the Stop Now And Plan (SNAP) program for boys at risk for violence and delinquency. Prevention Science, in press.Google Scholar
Chamberlain, P., Leve, L. D. & DeGarmo, D. S. (2007). Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care for girls in the juvenile justice system: 2-year follow-up of a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 187–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chamberlain, P. & Reid, J. B. (1998). Comparison of two community alternatives to incarceration for chronic juvenile offenders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 624–633.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clarke, R. V. (1995). Situational crime prevention. In Tonry, M. & Farrington, D. P. (eds.), Building a safer society: Strategic approaches to crime prevention (pp. 91–150). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, M. A. & Piquero, A. R. (2009). New evidence on the monetary value of saving a high risk youth. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 25, 25–29.Google Scholar
Dekovic, M., Slagt, M. I., Asscher, J. J., Boendermaker, L., Eichelsteim, V. I., & Prinzie, P. (2011). Effects of early prevention programs on adult criminal offending: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 532–544.Google Scholar
Donohue, J. J., & Siegelman, P. (1998). Allocating resources among prisons and social programs in the battle against crime. Journal of Legal Studies, 27, 1–43.Google Scholar
Dossetor, K. (2011). Cost-benefit analysis and its application to crime prevention and criminal justice research. (Technical and Background Paper No. 42.) Canberra, Australia: Australian Institute of Criminology.Google Scholar
Drake, E. K., Aos, S. & Miller, M. G. (2009). Evidence-based public policy options to reduce crime and criminal justice costs: Implications in Washington State. Victims and Offenders, 4, 170–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eckenrode, J., Campa, M., Luckey, D. W., Henderson, C. R., Cole, R., Kitzman, H., Anson, A., Sidora-Arcoleo, K., Powers, J., & Olds, D. (2010). Long-term effects of prenatal and infancy nurse home visitation on the life course of youths: 19-year follow-up of a randomized trial. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 164, 9–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrington, D. P. (1996). Understanding and preventing youth crime. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P. (2000). Explaining and preventing crime: The globalization of knowledge – The American Society of Criminology 1999 Presidential Address. Criminology, 38, 1–24.Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P. (2007). Childhood risk factors and risk-focussed prevention. In Maguire, M., Morgan, R., & Reiner, R. (eds.), The Oxford handbook of criminology (4th ed., pp. 602–640). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P., & Koegl., C. J. (in press). Monetary benefits and costs of the Stop Now And Plan program for boys aged 6-11, based on the prevention of later offending. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, in press.Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P., Loeber, R. & Ttofi, M. M. (2012). Risk and protective factors for offending. In Welsh, B. C. & Farrington, D. P. (eds.), The Oxford handbook of crime prevention (pp. 46–69). Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farrington, D. P. and Petrosino, A. (2001). The Campbell Collaboration Crime and Justice Group. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 578, 35–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farrington, D. P. & Welsh, B. C. (2005). Randomized experiments in criminology: What have we learned in the last two decades? Journal of Experimental Criminology, 1, 9–38.Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P. & Welsh, B. C. (2006). A half-century of randomized experiments on crime and justice. In Tonry, M. (ed.), Crime and Justice, vol. 34 (pp. 55–132). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P. & Welsh, B. C. (2007). Saving children from a life of crime: Early risk factors and effective interventions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P. & Welsh, B. C. (2013). Randomized experiments in criminology: What has been learned from long-term follow-ups? In Welsh, B. C., Braga, A. A. & Bruinsma, G. J. N. (Eds.), Experimental criminology: Prospects for advancing science and public policy (pp. 111–140). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenwood, P. W. (2006). Changing lives: Delinquency prevention as crime-control policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Greenwood, P. W. & Welsh, B. C. (2012). Promoting evidence-based practice in delinquency prevention at the state level: Principles, progress, and policy directions. Criminology and Public Policy, 11, 493–513.Google Scholar
Hahn, R. A., Bilukha, O., Lowy, J., Crosby, A., Fullilove, M. T., Liberman, A., Moscicki, E., Synder, S., Tuma, F., Corso, P. & Schofield, A. (2005). The effectiveness of therapeutic foster care for the prevention of violence. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28 (2S1), 72–90.Google Scholar
Hawkins, J. D. & Catalano, R. F. (1992). Communities that Care. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Kosterman, R., Abbott, R., & Hill, K. G. (1999). Preventing adolescent health risk behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 153, 226–234.Google Scholar
Hawkins, J. D., Kosterman, R., Catalano, R. F., Hill, K. G., & Abbott, R. D. (2008). Effects of social development intervention in childhood 15 years later. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 162, 1133–1141.Google Scholar
Hawkins, J. D., Oesterle, S., Brown, E. C., Arthur, M. W., Abbott, R. D., Fagan, A. A. & Catalano, R. F. (2009). Results of a type 2 translational research trial to prevent adolescent drug use and delinquency: A test of Communities That Care. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 163, 789–798.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawkins, J. D., Von Cleve, E., & Catalano, R. F. (1991). Reducing early childhood aggression: Results of a primary prevention program. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 208–217.Google Scholar
Henggeler, S. W., Clingempeel, W. G., Brondino, M. J., & Pickrel, S. G. (2002). Four-year follow-up of multisystemic therapy with substance-abusing and substance-dependent juvenile offenders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 868–874.Google Scholar
Henggeler, S. W., Melton, G. B., Brondino, M. J., Scherer, D. G., & Hanley, J. H. (1997). Multisystemic therapy with violent and chronic juvenile offenders and their families: The role of treatment fidelity in successful dissemination. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 821–833.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henggeler, S. W., Melton, G. B., Smith, L. A., Schoenwald, S. K., & Hanley, J. H. (1993). Family preservation using multisystematic treatment: Long-term follow-up to a clinical trial with serious juvenile offenders. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 2, 283–293.Google Scholar
Henggeler, S. W., Rowland, M. D., Randall, J., Ward, D. M., Pickrel, S. G., Cunningham, P. B., Miller, S. L., Edwards, J., Zealberg, J. J., Hand, L. D., & Santos, A. B. (1999). Home-based multisystemic therapy as an alternative to the hospitalization of youths in psychiatric crisis: Clinical outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1331–1339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henggeler, S. W., Schoenwald, S. K., Borduin, C. M., Rowland, M. D., & Cunningham, P. B. (1998). Multisystemic treatment of antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Hill, K. G., Bailey, J. A., Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Kosterman, R., Oesterle, S. & Abbott, R. D. (2014). The onset of STI diagnosis through age 30: Results from the Seattle Social Development Project intervention. Prevention Science, 15 (S1), S19–S32.Google Scholar
Hipwell, A. E. & Loeber, R. (2006). Do we know which interventions are effective for disruptive and delinquent girls? Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 9, 221–255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hope, T. (1995). Community crime prevention. In Tonry, M. & Farrington, D. P. (eds.), Building a safer society: Strategic approaches to crime prevention (pp. 21–89). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Kaminski, J. W., Valle, L. A., Filene, J. H. & Boyle, C. L. (2008). A metaanalytic review of components associated with parent training program effectiveness. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 567–589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koegl, C. J., Farrington, D. P., Augimeri, L. K. & Day, D. M. (2008). Evaluation of a targeted cognitive-behavioral program for children with conduct problems – the SNAP Under 12 Outreach Project: Service intensity, age and gender effects on short and long term outcomes. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 13, 419–434.Google Scholar
Kuklinski, M. R., Briney, J. S., Hawkins, J. D. & Catalano, R. F. (2012). Cost-benefit analysis of Communities That Care outcomes at eighth grade. Prevention Science, 13, 150–161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, S., Aos, S., Drake, E., Pennucci, A., Miller, U. & Anderson, L. (2012). Return on investment: Evidence-based options to improve statewide outcomes (Document no. 12-04-1201). Olympia, Washington: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.Google Scholar
Lipman, E. L., Kenny, M., Sniderman, C., O'Grady, S., Augimeri, L., Khayutin, S. & Boyle, M. H. (2008). Evaluation of a community-based program for young boys at-risk of antisocial behaviour: Results and issues. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 12–19.Google ScholarPubMed
Lösel, F. & Farrington, D. P. (2012). Direct protective and buffering protective factors in the development of youth violence. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 43 (2S1), S8–S23.Google Scholar
McDougall, C., Cohen, M. A., Perry, A. & Swaray, R. (2006). Costs and benefits of sentencing. In Welsh, B. C. & Farrington, D. P. (eds.), Preventing crime: What works for children, offenders, victims, and places (pp. 117–127). New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McIntosh, C., & Li, J. (2012). An introduction to economic analysis in crime prevention: The why, how and so what. (Research Report 2012-5). Ottawa, Canada: Department of Justice Canada.Google Scholar
Manning, M., Homel, R., & Smith, C. (2010). A meta-analysis of the effects of early developmental prevention programs in at-risk populations on non-health outcomes in adolescence. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 506–519.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michelson, D., Davenport, C., Dretzke, J., Barlow, J. & Day, C. (2013). Do evidence-based interventions work when tested in the “real world”? A systematic review and meta-analysis of parent management training for the treatment of child disruptive behavior. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 16, 18–34.Google Scholar
Murray, J. & Farrington, D. P. (2010). Risk factors for conduct disorder and delinquency: Key findings from longitudinal studies. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 55, 633–642.Google Scholar
O'Donnell, J., Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Abbott, R. D., & Day, L. E. (1995). Preventing school failure, drug use, and delinquency among low-income children: Long-term intervention in elementary schools. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65, 87–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olds, D. L., Eckenrode, J., Henderson, C. R., Kitzman, H., Powers, J., Cole, R., Sidora, K., Morris, P., Pettitt, L. M., & Luckey, D. (1997). Long-term effects of home visitation on maternal life course and child abuse and neglect: Fifteen-year follow-up of a randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278, 637–643.Google Scholar
Olds, D. L., Henderson, C. R., Chamberlin, R., & Tatelbaum, R. (1986). Preventing child abuse and neglect: A randomized trial of nurse home visitation. Pediatrics, 78, 65–78.Google Scholar
Olds, D. L., Henderson, C. R., Cole, R., Eckenrode, J., Kitzman, H., Luckey, D., Pettitt, L., Sidora, K., Morris, P., & Powers, J. (1998). Long-term effects of nurse home visitation on children's criminal and antisocial behavior: 15-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 1238–1244.Google Scholar
Olds, D. L., Sadler, L., & Kitzman, H. (2007). Programs for parents of infants and toddlers: Recent evidence from randomized trials. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 355–391.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, Oregon: Castalia.Google Scholar
Piquero, A., Farrington, D. P., Welsh, B. C., Tremblay, R. E. & Jennings, W. G. (2009). Effects of early family/parent training programs on antisocial behavior and delinquency. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 5, 83–120.Google Scholar
Raffan Gowar, B. & Farrington, D. P. (2013). The monetary cost of criminal careers. In Boers, K., Feltes, T., Kinzig, J., Sherman, L. W., Streng, F. & Trueg, G. (eds.), Kriminologie, kriminalpolitik, strafrecht (Criminology, crime policy, penal law): Festschrift fur Hans-Jurgen Kerner on the occasion of his 70th birthday (pp. 441–456). Tubingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck.Google Scholar
Roman, J. K., Dunworth, T. & Marsh, K. (2010). Cost-benefit analysis and crime control. Washington, D. C.: Urban Institute Press.Google Scholar
Ross, R. R. & Ross, B. D. (1988). Delinquency prevention through cognitive training. New Education, 10, 70–75.Google Scholar
Ross, R. R. & Ross, R. D. (Eds.) (1995). Thinking straight: The Reasoning and Rehabilitation program for delinquency prevention and offender rehabilitation. Ottawa, Canada: Air Training and Publications.Google Scholar
Sanders, M. R., Kirby, J. N., Tellegen, C. L. & Day, J. J. (2014). The Triple-P Positive Parenting program: A systematic review and meta-analysis of a multilevel system of parenting support. Clinical Psychology Review, 34, 337–357.Google Scholar
Sanders, M. R., Markie-Dadds, C., Tully, L. A. & Bor, W. (2000). The Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: A comparison of enhanced, standard and self-directed behavioral family intervention for parents of children with early onset conduct problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 624–640.Google Scholar
Sawyer, A. M. & Borduin, C. M. (2011). Effects of multisystemic therapy through midlife: A 21.9-year follow-up to a randomized clinical trial with serious and violent juvenile offenders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79, 643–652.Google Scholar
Schaeffer, C. M. & Borduin, C. M. (2005). Long-term follow-up to a randomized clinical trial of multisystemic therapy with serious and violent juvenile offenders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 445–453.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schweinhart, L. J., Barnes, H. V., & Weikart, D. P. (1993). Significant benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study through age 27. Ypsilanti, Michigan: High/Scope Press.Google Scholar
Schweinhart, L. J., Montie, J., Zongping, X., Barnett, W. S., Belfield, C. R., & Nores, M. (2005). Lifetime effects: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study through age 40. Ypsilanti, Michigan: High/Scope Press.Google Scholar
Schweinhart, L. J. & Weikart, D. P. (1980). Young children grow up: The effects of the Perry Preschool Program on youths through age 15. Ypsilanti, Michigan: High/Scope Press.Google Scholar
Sexton, T. L. & Alexander, J. F. (2000). Functional family therapy. Washington, DC: U. S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.Google Scholar
Sexton, T. & Turner, C. W. (2010). The effectiveness of Functional Family Therapy for youth with behavioral problems in a community practice setting. Journal of Family Psychology, 24, 339–348.Google Scholar
Sherman, L. W., Farrington, D. P., Welsh, B. C., & MacKenzie, D. L. (Eds.) (2006). Evidence-based crime prevention (Rev. ed.). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Swaray, R. B., Bowles, R. & Pradiptyo, R. (2005). The application of economic analysis to criminal justice interventions: A review of the literature. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 16, 141–163.Google Scholar
Thomas, R. & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2007). Behavioral outcomes of parent-child interaction therapy and Triple-P positive parenting program: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 475–495.Google Scholar
Tong, L. S. J. & Farrington, D. P. (2008). Effectiveness of “Reasoning and Rehabilitation” in reducing offending. Psicothema, 20, 20–28.Google Scholar
Tonry, M. & Farrington, D. P. (1995). Strategic approaches to crime prevention. In Tonry, M. & Farrington, D. P. (eds.), Building a safer society: Strategic approaches to crime prevention (pp. 1–20). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Tremblay, R. E. & Craig, W. M. (1995). Developmental crime prevention. In Tonry, M. and Farrington, D. P. (eds.), Building a safer society: Strategic approaches to crime prevention (pp. 151–236). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Tremblay, R. E., Pagani-Kurtz, L., Masse, L. C., Vitaro, F., & Pihl, R. O. (1995). A bimodal preventive intervention for disruptive kindergarten boys: Its impact through mid-adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 560–568.Google Scholar
Turner, W. & MacDonald, G. (2011). Treatment Foster Care for improving outcomes in children and young people: A systematic review. Research on Social Work Practice, 21, 501–527.Google Scholar
Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., Giguere, C-E. & Tremblay, R. E. (2013). Early prevention of life-course personal and property violence: A 19-year follow-up of the Montreal Longitudinal-Experimental Study (MLES). Journal of Experimental Criminology, 9, 411–427.Google Scholar
Webster-Stratton, C. (1998). Preventing conduct problems in Head Start children: Strengthening parenting competencies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 715–730.Google Scholar
Webster-Stratton, C. (2000). The Incredible Years training series. Washington, D. C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.Google Scholar
Welsh, B. C., & Farrington, D. P. (1999). Value for money? A review of the costs and benefits of situational crime prevention. British Journal of Criminology 39, 345–368.Google Scholar
Welsh, B. C., & Farrington, D. P. (2000a). Monetary costs and benefits of crime prevention programs. In Tonry, M. (ed.) Crime and justice, vol. 27 (pp. 305–361). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Welsh, B. C., & Farrington, D. P. (2000b). Correctional intervention programs and cost-benefit analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27, 115–133.Google Scholar
Welsh, B. C., & Farrington, D. P. (2011). The benefits and costs of early prevention compared with imprisonment: Toward evidence-based policy. Prison Journal, 91 (3S1), 120–137.Google Scholar
Welsh, B. C., & Farrington, D. P. (Eds.) (2012). The Oxford handbook of crime prevention. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Welsh, B. C., Farrington, D. P. & Raffan Gowar, B. (in press). Benefit-cost analysis of crime prevention programs. In Tonry, M. (ed.) Crime and justice, vol. 44. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, in press.Google Scholar
Welsh, B. C., Farrington, D. P., & Sherman, L. W. (Eds.) (2001). Costs and benefits of preventing crime. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Welsh, B. C., Sullivan, C. J. & Olds, D. L. (2010). When early crime prevention goes to scale: A new look at the evidence. Prevention Science, 11, 115–125.Google Scholar
West, D. J. & Farrington, D. P. (1977). The delinquent way of life. London: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Widom, C. S. (1989). The cycle of violence. Science, 244, 160–166.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. J. & Howell, J. C. (1993). A comprehensive strategy for serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.Google Scholar
Zara, G. & Farrington, D. P. (2014). Cognitive-behavioral skills training in preventing offending and reducing recidivism. In Jiminez Gonzalez, E. M. & Alba Robles, J. L. (eds.), Criminology and forensic psychology (pp. 55–102). Charleston, South Carolina: Criminology and Justice Publisher.Google Scholar