Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T20:19:57.623Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Healthcare Laundry and Textiles in the United States: Review and Commentary on Contemporary Infection Prevention Issues

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 June 2015

Lynne M. Sehulster
Lynne M. Sehulster*
Affiliation:
Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
*
Address correspondence to Lynne M. Sehulster, PhD, M(ASCP), Prevention and Response Branch, Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, Mailstop A-35, Atlanta, GA 30329-4027 ([email protected]).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Healthcare professionals have questions about the infection prevention effectiveness of contemporary laundry processes for healthcare textiles (HCTs). Current industrial laundry processes achieve microbial reductions via physical, chemical, and thermal actions, all of which result in producing hygienically clean HCTs. European researchers have demonstrated that oxidative laundry additives have sufficient potency to meet US Environmental Protection Agency benchmarks for sanitizers and disinfectants. Outbreaks of infectious diseases associated with laundered HCTs are extremely rare; only 12 such outbreaks have been reported worldwide in the past 43 years. Root cause analyses have identified inadvertent exposure of clean HCTs to environmental contamination (including but not limited to exposure to dust in storage areas) or a process failure during laundering. To date, patient-to-patient transmission of infection has not been associated with hygienically clean HCTs laundered in accordance with industry process standards. Occupationally acquired infection involved mishandling of soiled HCTs and failure to use personal protective equipment properly. Laboratory studies of antimicrobial treatments for HCTs demonstrate a wide range of activity from 1 to 7 log10 reduction of pathogens under various experimental conditions. Clinical studies are needed to evaluate potential use of these treatments for infection prevention. Microbiological testing of clean HCTs for certification purposes is now available in the United States. Key features (eg, microbial sampling strategy, numbers of textiles sampled) and justification of the testing are discussed.

Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 2015;36(9):1073–1088

Type
Review Articles
Information
Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology , Volume 36 , Issue 9 , September 2015 , pp. 1073 - 1088
Copyright
© 2015 by The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. All rights reserved 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Rutala, WA, Weber, DJ. Uses of inorganic hypochlorite (bleach) in health-care facilities. Clin Microbiol Rev 1997;10:597–610.Google Scholar
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC/HICPAC Guidelines for environmental infection control in health-care facilities. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC) website. http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/pdf/guidelines/eic_in_HCF_03.pdf. Published 2003. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
3. Facility Guidelines Institute. Guidelines for Design and Construction of Health Care Facilities. Chicago, IL: American Society for Healthcare Engineering, 2010.Google Scholar
4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI).ANSI/AAMI ST 65:2008 (R) 2013 Processing of Reusable Surgical Textiles for Use in Health Care Facilities. Arlington, VA: Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation, 2009.Google Scholar
5. Blaser, MJ, Smith, PE, Cody, HJ, Wang, W-LL, LaForce, FM. Killing of fabric-associated bacteria in hospital laundry by low-temperature washing. J Infect Dis 1984;149:48–57.Google Scholar
6. Nicholes, PS. Bacteria in laundered fabrics. Am J Public Health 1970;60:2175–2180.Google Scholar
7. US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens: final rule (29 CFR §1910.1030). Fed Reg 1991;56:64004–64182.Google Scholar
8. Shah, PC, Krajden, S, Kane, J, Summerbell, RC. Tinea corporis caused by Microsporum canis: report of a nosocomial outbreak. Eur J Epidemiol 1988;4:33–38.Google Scholar
9. Shimori, T, Miyamoto, H, Makishima, K, et al. Evaluation of bedmaking-related airborne and surface methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus contamination. J Hosp Infect 2002;50:30–35.Google Scholar
10. Garner, JS, Simmons, BP. CDC guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals. Am J Infect Control 1984;12:103–163.Google Scholar
11. Weinstein, SA, Gantz, NM, Pelletier, C, Hibert, D. Bacterial surface contamination of patients’ linen: isolation precautions versus standard care. Am J Infect Control 1989;17:264–267.Google Scholar
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC/HICPAC Isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infectious agents in health-care settings. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC) website. http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/pdf/isolation/Isolation2007.pdf. Published 2007. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
13. Riggs, CL, Klipper, M. Textile Laundering Technology. Alexandria, VA: Textile Rental Services Association of America, 2005.Google Scholar
14. Healthcare Laundry Accreditation Council (HLAC). Accreditation standards for processing reusable textiles for use in healthcare facilities. HLAC website. http://www.hlacnet.org. Published 2011. Accessed September 28, 2013.Google Scholar
15. Fairbanks, L. Guide to Assessing Health Care Laundry Quality. Richmond, KY: Association for Linen Management, 2011.Google Scholar
16. Walter, WG, Schillinger, JE. Bacterial survival in laundered fabrics. Appl Microbiol 1975;29:368–373.Google Scholar
17. Mouton, RP, Bekkers, JH. Bacteriological results of routine procedures in a hospital laundry. Folia Med Neerl 1967;10:71–76.Google Scholar
18. Jaska, JM, Fredell, DL. Impact of detergent systems on bacterial survival on laundered fabrics. Appl Environ Microbiol 1980;39:743–748.Google Scholar
19. Battles, DR, Vesley, D. Wash water temperature and sanitation in the hospital laundry. J Environ Health 1981;43:244–250.Google Scholar
20. Christian, RR, Manchester, JT, Mellor, MT. Bacteriological quality of fabrics washed at lower-than-standard temperatures in a hospital laundry facility. Appl Environ Microbiol 1983;45:591–597.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
21. Smith, JA, Neil, KR, Davidson, CG, Davidson, RW. Effect of water temperature on bacterial killing in laundry. Infect Control 1987;8:204–209.Google Scholar
22. Choi, SY, Lee, IY, Sohn, JH, et al. Optimal conditions for the removal of house dust mite, dog dander, and pollen allergens using mechanical laundry. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2008;100:583–588.Google Scholar
23. Heinzel, M, Kyas, A, Weide, M, Breves, R, Bockműhl, DP. Evaluation of the virucidal performance of domestic laundry procedures. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2010;213:334–337.Google Scholar
24. Orr, KE, Holliday, G, Jones, AL, Robson, I, Perry, JD. Survival of enterococci during hospital laundry processing. J Hosp Infect 2002;50:133–139.Google Scholar
25. Arnold, L. A sanitary study of commercial laundry practices. Am J Public Health 1938;28:39–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26. Chemistry of soaps, how they work, soaps vs. detergents. Detergents and Soaps website. http://www.detergentsandsoaps.com. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
27. Gerba, CP, Kennedy, D. Enteric virus survival during household laundering and impact of disinfection with sodium hypochlorite. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007;73:4425–4428.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28. Chlorine bleaching at institutional laundries: identifying the risks. Laundry Today website. http://www.laundrytoday.com. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
29. Troubleshooting textiles: what causes pilling? Redeposition? Shrinkage? American Laundry News website. http://www.americanlaundrynews.com/articles/. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
30. The stain that wouldn’t fade. American Laundry News website. http://www.americanlaundrynews.com/articles/. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
31. Tinker, SJ. Chlorine bleach or oxygen bleach. Laundry Today website. http://www.laundrytoday.com. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
32. US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Product performance test guidelines OCSPP 810.2400: disinfectants and sanitizers for use on fabrics and textiles–efficacy data recommendations. EPA website. http://www.epa.gov/oppfead1/cb/csb_page/updates/2012/testguidelines.html. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
33. US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Pesticide product label system (PPLS). EPA website. http://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=PPLS:1. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
34. Merianos, JJ. Surface-active agents. In Block SS, ed. Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001:283–320.Google Scholar
35. Lawrence, CA. Mechanism of action and neutralizing agents for surface-active materials upon microorganisms. Ann NY Acad Sci 1950;53:66–75.Google Scholar
36. Buford, LE, Pickett, MS, Hartman, PA. Sanitation in self-service automatic washers. Appl Environ Microbiol 1977;33:74–78.Google Scholar
37. McNeil, E, Choper, EA. Disinfectants in home laundering. Soap Chem Spec 1962;38:51–54; 94, 97–100.Google Scholar
38. Green laundry: an industry-changing progress (part 1 of 2). American Laundry News website. http://www.americanlaundrynews.com/articles/. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
39. Tinker, SJ. Peracetic acid vs. hydrogen peroxide bleaching. Technical service bulletin TB-07030. Gurtler Industries website. http://www.gurtler.com/. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
40. Understanding the science behind ozone laundering. American Laundry News website. http://www.americanlaundrynews.com/articles/. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
41. Tinker, SJ. Ozone in laundry. Technical service bulletin TB 09110. Gurtler Industries. http://www.gurtler.com/. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
42. Ozone in the laundry industry—a view from both sides. Laundry Today website. http://www.jaundrytoday.com/index.php/. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
43. Ozone in the laundry industry—practical experiences in the United Kingdom. Ozone Laundry Handbook website. http://www.cwtozone.com/uploads/. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
44. Guide to ozone laundry systems. OPC Solutions website. http://www.opcsolutions.co.uk/technical/. Accessed September 29, 2013.Google Scholar
45. Cardoso, CC, Fiorini, JE, Ferriera, LR, Gurjão, JWB, Amaral, LA. Disinfection of hospital laundry using ozone: microbiological evaluation. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46. Belkin, NL. Aseptics and aesthetics of chlorine bleach: can its use in laundering be safely abandoned? Am J Public Health 1998;26:149–151.Google Scholar
47. Altenbaher, B, Šostar Turk, S, Fijan, S. Ecological parameters and disinfection effect of low-temperature laundering in hospitals in Sovenia. J Cleaner Prod 2011;19:253–258.Google Scholar
48. Jordan, WE, Jones, DV. Antiviral effectiveness of chlorine bleach in household laundry use. Am J Dis Child 1969;117:313–316.Google Scholar
49. Fijan, S, Koren, S, Cencič, A, Šostar Turk, S. Antimicrobial disinfection effect of a laundering procedure for hospital textiles against various indicator bacteria and fungi using different substrates for simulating human excrements. Diag Microbiol Infect Dis 2007;57:251–257.Google Scholar
50. Fijan, S, Šostar Turk, S. Antimicrobial activity of selected disinfectants used in a low temperature laundering procedure for textiles. Fib Text E Eur 2010;18:89–92.Google Scholar
51. Nordstrom, JM, Reynolds, KA, Gerba, CP. Comparison of bacteria on new, disposable, laundered, and unlaundered hospital scrubs. Am J Infect Control 2012;40:539–543.Google Scholar
52. Honisch, M, Stamminger, R, Bockmühl, DP. Impact of wash cycle time, temperature and detergent formulation on the hygiene effectiveness of domestic laundering. J Appl Microbiol 2014;117:1787–1797.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
53. Lakdawala, N, Pham, J, Shah, M, Holton, J. Effectiveness of low-temperature domestic laundry on the decontamination of healthcare workers’ uniforms. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2011;32:1103–1108.Google Scholar
54. Patel, SM, Murray-Leonard, J. Wilson APR. Laundering of hospital staff uniforms at home. J Hosp Infect 2006;62:89–93.Google Scholar
55. Association of periOperative Registered Nurses. Guideline for surgical attire. In: 2015 Guidelines for Perioperative Practice. Denver, CO: AORN, 2015:97–119.Google Scholar
56. Dancer, SJ, White, L, Robertson, C. Monitoring environmental cleanliness on two surgical wards. Int J Environ Health Res 2008;18:257–264.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57. Boyce, JM, Potter-Bynoe, G, Chenevert, C, King, T. Environmental contamination due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: possible infection control implications. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:622–627.Google Scholar
58. Bonten, MJM, Hayden, MK, Nathan, C, et al. Epidemiology of colonization of patients and environment with vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Lancet 1996;348:1615–1619.Google Scholar
59. Fujita, K, Lilly, HA, Kidson, A, Ayliffe, GAJ. Gentamicin-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection from mattresses in a burns unit. Br Med J 1981;283:219–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
60. Weernink, A, Severin, WPJ, Thernberg, T, Dijkshoorn, L. Pillows, an unexpected source of Acinetobacter . J Hosp Infect 1995;29:189–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61. Huang, SS, Datta, R, Platt, R. Risk of acquiring antibiotic-resistant bacteria from prior room occupants. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:1945–1951.Google Scholar
62. US Government Accounting Office (GAO). VA Health Care: laundry service, operations and costs. GAO website. http://www.gao.gov/new.items/he0016.pdf. Accessed September 30, 2013.Google Scholar
63. American Hospital Association (AHA). Fast facts on US hospitals. AHA website. http://www.aha.org/research/rc/stat-studies/fast-facts.shtml. Accessed October 1, 2013.Google Scholar
64. Streifel, AJ. Healthcare-associated infections and the environment. In Mayhall CG, ed. Hospital Epidemiology and Infection Control, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2012:1051–1058.Google Scholar
65. Birch, BR, Perera, BS, Hyde, WA, et al. Bacillus cereus cross-infection in a maternity-unit. J Hosp Infect 1981;2:349–354.Google Scholar
66. Barrie, D, Wilson, JA, Hoffman, PN, Kramer, JM. Bacillus cereus meningitis in two neurosurgical patients: an investigation into the source of the organism. J Hosp Infect 1992;25:291–297.Google Scholar
67. Barrie, D, Hoffman, PN, Wilson, JA, Kramer, JM. Contamination of hospital linen by Bacillus cereus . Epidemiol Infect 1994;113:297–306.Google Scholar
68. Telfer Brunton, WA. Infection and hospital laundry. Lancet 1995;345:1574–1575.Google Scholar
69. Ohsaki, Y, Koyano, S, Tachibana, M, et al. Undetected Bacillus pseudo-outbreak after renovation work in a teaching hospital. J Infect 2008;54:617–622.Google Scholar
70. Ohsaki, Y, Kuroli, M, Tachibana, M, Koyano, S, Yoshida, I, Ito, Y. Use of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) in laundering stops cross-contamination of Bacillus cereus . J Hosp Infect 2007;55:283–284.Google Scholar
71. Dohmae, S, Okubo, T, Higuchi, W, et al. Bacillus cereus nosocomial infection from reused towels in Japan. J Hosp Infect 2008;69:361–367.Google Scholar
72. Sasahara, T, Hayashi, S, Morisawa, Y, Sakihama, T, Yoshimura, A, Hirai, Y. Bacillus cereus bacteremia outbreak due to contaminated hospital linens. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2011;30:219–226.Google Scholar
73. Duffy, J, Harris, J, Gade, L, et al. Mucormycosis outbreak associated with hospital linens. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2014;33:472–476.Google Scholar
74. Hosein, IK, Hoffman, PN, Ellam, S, et al. Summertime Bacillus cereus colonization of hospital newborns traced to contaminated, laundered linen. J Hosp Infect 2013;85:149–154.Google Scholar
75. Balm, MND, Jureen, R, Teo, C, et al. Hot and steamy: outbreak of Bacillus cereus in Singapore associated with construction work and laundry practices. J Hosp Infect 2010;81:224–230.Google Scholar
76. Sooklal, S, Khan, A, Kannangara, S. Hospital Clostridium difficile outbreak linked to laundry machine malfunction. Am J Infect Control 2014;42:674–675.Google Scholar
77. Thomas, MC, Giedinghagen, DH, Hoff, GL. Brief report: an outbreak of scabies among employees in a hospital-associated commercial laundry. Infect Control 1987;8:427–429.Google Scholar
78. Standaert, SM, Hutcheson, RH, Schaffner, W. Nosocomial transmission of Salmonella gastroenteritis to laundry workers in a nursing home. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994;15:22–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
79. Borg, MA, Portelli, A. Hospital laundry workers—an at-risk group for hepatitis A? Occup Med 1999;49:448–450.Google Scholar
80. Meijster, T, Fransman, W, Weldhof, R, Kromhout, H. Exposure to antineoplastic drugs outside the hospital environment. Ann Occup Hyg 2006;50:657–664.Google ScholarPubMed
81. Bearman, G, Bryant, K, Leekha, S, et al. Healthcare personnel attire in non-operating-room settings. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2014;35:107–121.Google Scholar
82. Bureau-Chalot, F, Piednoir, E, Camus, J, Bajolet, O. Microbiologic quality of linen and linen rooms in short-term care units. J Hosp Infect 2004;56:329–331.Google Scholar
83. Elsner, P. Antimicrobials and the skin physiological and pathological flora. Curr Probl Dermatol 2006;33:35–41.Google Scholar
84. Ricci, G, Patrizi, A, Bellini, F, Medri, M. Use of textiles in atopic dermatitis. Curr Probl Dermatol 2006;33:127–143.Google Scholar
85. Haug, S, Roll, A, Schmid-Grendelmeier, P, et al. Coated textiles in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Curr Probl Dermatol 2006;33:144–151.Google Scholar
86. Gauger, A. Silver-coated textiles in the therapy of atopic eczema. Curr Probl Dermatol 2006;33:152–164.Google Scholar
87. Szostak-Kotowa, J. Biodeterioration of textiles. Int Biodeter Biodegrad 2004;53:165–170.Google Scholar
88. Gao, Y, Cranston, R. Recent advances in antimicrobial treatments of textiles. Tex Res J 2008;78:60–72.Google Scholar
89. Dastjerdi, R, Montazer, M. A review on the application of inorganic nano-structured materials in the modification of textiles: focus on anti-microbial properties. Colloids Surf, B 2010;79:5–18.Google Scholar
90. Mariscal, A, Lopez-Gigosos, RM, Carnero-Varo, M, Fernandez-Crehuet, J. Antimicrobial effect of medical textiles containing bioactive fibres. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2011;30:227–232.Google Scholar
91. Fernandes, JC, Tavaria, FK, Fonseca, SC, Ramos, OS, Pintado, ME, Malcata, FX. In vitro screening for antimicrobial activity of chitosans and chitooligosaccharides, aiming at potential uses in functional textiles. J Microbiol Biotechnol 2010;20:311–318.Google Scholar
92. Takai, K, Ohtsuka, T, Senda, Y, et al. Antibacterial properties of antimicrobial-finished textile products. Microbiol Immunol 2002;46:75–81.Google Scholar
93. Tavaria, FK, Soares, JC, Reis, IL, Paulo, MH, Malcata, FX, Pintado, ME. Chitosan: antimicrobial action upon staphylococci after impregnation onto cotton fabric. J Appl Microbiol 2012;112:1034–1041.Google Scholar
94. Vukušić, SB, Grgac, SF, Budimir, A, Kalenić, S. Cotton textiles modified with citric acid as efficient antibacterial agent for prevention of nosocomial infections. Croat Med J 2011;52:68–75.Google Scholar
95. Hammer, TR, Mucha, H, Hoefer, D. Dermatophyte susceptibility varies towards antimicrobial textiles. Mycoses 2012;55:344–351.Google Scholar
96. Imai, K, Ogawa, H, Bui, VN, et al. Inactivation of high and low pathogenic avian influenza virus H5 subtypes by copper ions incorporated in zeolite-textile materials. Antiviral Res 2012;93:225–233.Google Scholar
97. Baxa, D, Shetron-Rama, L, Golembieski, M, et al. In vitro evaluation of a novel process for reducing bacterial contamination of environmental surfaces. Am J Infect Control 2011;39:483–487.Google Scholar
98. Kasuga, E, Kawakami, Y, Matsumoto, T, et al. Bactericidal activities of woven cotton and nonwoven polypropylene fabrics coated with hydroxyapatite-binding silver/titanium dioxide ceramic nanocomposite “Earth-plus.”. Int J Nanomed 2011;6:1937–1943.Google Scholar
99. Schweizer, M, Graham, M, Olh, M, Heilmann, K, Boyken, L, Diekema, D. Novel hospital curtains with antimicrobial properties: a randomized, controlled trial. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2012;33:1081–1085.Google Scholar
100. Bearman, GML, Rosato, A, Elam, K, et al. A crossover trial of antimicrobial scrubs to reduce methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus burden on healthcare worker apparel. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2012;33:268–275.Google Scholar
101. Hőfer, D. Antimicrobial textiles, skin-borne flora and odour. Curr Probl Dermatol 2006;33:67–77.Google Scholar
102. Kulthong, K, Srisung, S, Boonpavaitchakul, K, Kanywansupamonkon, W, Maniratanachote, R. Determination of silver nanoparticle release from antibacterial fabrics into artificial sweat. Particle Fibre Toxicol 2010;7:8–16.Google Scholar
103. Kramer, A, Guggenbichler, P, Heldt, P, et al. Hygienic relevance and risk assessment of antimicrobial-impregnated textiles. Curr Probl Dermatol 2006;33:78–109.Google Scholar
104. Borkow, G, Gabbay, J. Biocidal textiles can help fight nosocomial infections. Med Hypotheses 2008;70:990–994.Google Scholar
105. Lazary, A, Weinberg, I, Vatine, J-J, et al. Reduction of healthcare-associated infections in a long-term brain injury ward by replacing regular linens with biocidal copper oxide impregnated linens. Int J Infect Dis 2014;24:23–29.Google Scholar
106. US Environmental Protection Agency. Pesticide Registration (PR) Notice 2000–1. 6 March 2000. Notice to manufacturers, formulators, producers and registrants of pesticide products. EPA website. http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/PR_Notices/pr2000-1.pdf. Accessed September 30, 2013.Google Scholar
107. US Environmental Protection Agency. Consumer protects treated with pesticides. EPA website. http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/treatart.htm. Accessed September 30, 2013.Google Scholar
108. Ricci, G, Neri, I, Ricci, L, Patrizi, A. Silk fabrics in the management of atopic dermatitis. Skin Therapy Lett 2012;17:5–7.Google Scholar
109. German Certification Association for Professional Textile Services. RAL-GZ992/2–Hospital Linen. Bőnnigheim, Germany. http://www.waeschereien.de/en/waeschereien/guetezeichen/9922_healthcare_linen/9922_healthcare_linen.html. Accessed September 30, 2013.Google Scholar
110. Institute for Sustainability and Hygiene International. Certification standards for processing reusable linen. MacKenzie, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. April 2011.Google Scholar
111. Textile Rental Services Association. Standards for producing hygienically clean reusable textiles. http://www.trsa.org/sites/default/files/uploads/documents/hygienic_trsa_standard.pdf. Published January 1, 2015. Accessed February 15, 2015.Google Scholar
112. US Pharmacopeia. USP 31 Microbiological Tests. <62> Microbiological examination of nonsterile products: tests for specific microorganisms. http://www.usp.org/sites/default/files/usp_pdf/EN/USPNF/generalChapter62.pdf. Accessed October 1, 2013.+Microbiological+examination+of+nonsterile+products:+tests+for+specific+microorganisms.+http://www.usp.org/sites/default/files/usp_pdf/EN/USPNF/generalChapter62.pdf.+Accessed+October+1,+2013.>Google Scholar
113. Garner, JS, Favero, MS. Guideline for handwashing and hospital environmental control. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control, 1985, Document No. 99-1117.Google Scholar
114. Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI). AAMI dialysis standards. http://www.aami.org/publications/standards/dialysis.html. Accessed October 1, 2013.Google Scholar
115. Tomasino, SF. Development and assessment of disinfectant efficacy test methods for regulatory purposes. Am J Infect Control 2013;41:S72–S76.Google Scholar
116. American National Standards Institute (ANSI). ANSI essential requirements: due process requirements for American national standards. New York, NY. http://www.ansi.org. Published January 2010. Accessed September 30, 2013.Google Scholar
117. AOAC International. Official methods of analysis of AOAC International, 19th ed. Gaithersburg, MD: AOAC International, 2012. http://www.aoac.org/iMIS15_Prod/AOAC/Publications/Official_Methods_of_Analysis/About/AOAC_Member/Pubs/OMA/AOAC_Official_Methods_of_Analysis.aspx?hkey=ccc1fa5c-3e0f-4f76-87ab-1604b266f9df. Accessed October 1, 2013.Google Scholar
118. ASTM International. Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 07.01, Textiles I, and Vol. 07.02, Textiles II. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2013.Google Scholar
119. Fijan, S, Šostar Turk, S. Hospital textiles, are they a possible vehicle for healthcare-associated infections? Int J Environ Res Public Health 2012;9:3330–3343.Google Scholar
120. Sifuentes, LY, Gerba, CP, Weart, I, Engelbrecht, K, Koenig, DW. Microbial contamination of hospital reusable cleaning towels. Am J Infect Control 2013;41:912–915.Google Scholar
121. Fijan, S, Šostar Turk, S, Cencic, A. Implementing hygiene monitoring systems in hospital laundries in order to reduce microbial contamination of hospital textiles. J Hosp Infect 2005;61:30–38.Google Scholar
122. Griffith, C. HACCP and the management of healthcare associated infections: are there lessons to be learnt from other industries? Int J Health Care Qual Assur 2006;19:351–367.Google Scholar
123. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS). Center for Clinical Standards and Quality/Survey & Certification Group. Clarification of interpretive guidance at F Tag 441—laundry and infection control. Ref: S&C:13-09-NH. CMS website. http://www.cms.gov/Medicare/Providers-Enrollment-and-Certification/SurveyCertificationGenInfo/Downloads/Survey-and-Cert-Letter-13-09.pdf. Accessed October 1, 2013.Google Scholar
124. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS). Condition of participation: governing body. 42 CFR §482.12. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2011-title42-vol5/pdf/CFR-2011-title42-vol5-sec482-12.pdf. Accessed October 15, 2014.Google Scholar
125. Association for Linen Management. Hospital oversight of contract laundry services. http://www.almnet.org.Google Scholar