Hostname: page-component-cc8bf7c57-fxdwj Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-12T04:50:40.761Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

What Have We Learned That Is Critical in Understanding Leadership Perceptions and Leader-Performance Relations?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 January 2015

Robert G. Lord  and
Jessica E. Dinh
Robert G. Lord*
Affiliation:
Durham University
Jessica E. Dinh
Affiliation:
University of Akron
*
E-mail: [email protected], Address: Business School, Durham University, United Kingdom
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In this article, we provide a brief review of the current and past research on leadership perceptions and performance. We then describe four principles that have emerged from many decades of research, which can provide new directions for future leadership theory and research.

Type
Focal Article
Information
Industrial and Organizational Psychology , Volume 7 , Issue 2 , June 2014 , pp. 158 - 177
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allen, T. D., Shockley, K. M., & Poteat, L. (2010). Protégé anxiety attachment and feedback in mentoring relationships. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77(1), 73–80.Google Scholar
Andersen, S. M., & Chen, S. (2002). The relational self: An interpersonal social-cognitive theory. Psychological Review, 109, 619–644.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arvey, R. D., Rotundo, M., Johnson, W., Zhang, Z., & McGue, M. (2006). The determinants of leadership role occupancy: Genetic and personality factors. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(1), 1–20.Google Scholar
Ashton-James, C., van Baaren, R. B., Chartrand, T. L., Decety, J., & Karremans, J. (2007). Mimicry and me: The impact of mimicry on self-construal. Social Cognition, 25, 518–535.Google Scholar
Avolio, B. J., Rotundo, M., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2009). Early life experiences as determinants of leadership role occupancy: The importance of parental influence and rule breaking behavior. The Leadership Quarterly, 20, 329–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balkundi, P., & Kilduff, M. (2006). The ties that lead: A social network approach to leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(4), 419–439.Google Scholar
Balogun, J., & Johnson, G. (2004). Organizational restructuring and middle manager sensemaking. Academy of Management Journal, 47, 523–549.Google Scholar
Baltes, B. B., Bauer, C. B., & Frensch, P. (2007). Does a structured free recall intervention reduce the effect of stereotypes on performance ratings and by what cognitive mechanism? Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 151–164.Google Scholar
Bingham, C. B., & Kahl, S. J. (2013). The process of schema emergence: Assimilation, deconstruction, unitization and the plurality of analogies. Academy of Management Journal, 56(1), 14–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanchette, I., & Richards, A. (2010). The influence of affect on higher level cognition: A review of interpretation, judgment, decision making, and reasoning. Cognition and Emotion, 24(4), 561–595.Google Scholar
Bluedorn, A. C., & Jaussi, K. S. (2008). Leaders, followers, and time. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 654–668.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boeker, W. (1997). Strategic change: The influence of managerial characteristics and organizational growth. Academy of Management Journal, 40(1), 152–170.Google Scholar
Bono, J. E., & Ilies, R. (2006). Charisma, positive emotions and mood contagion. The Leadership Quarterly, 17, 317–334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, D. J., & Keeping, L. M. (2005). Elaborating the construct of transformational leadership: The role of affect. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 245–272.Google Scholar
Calder, B. J. (1977). An attribution theory of leadership. In Staw, B. & Salancik, J. (Eds.), New directions in organizational behavior. Chicago: St. Clair Press.Google Scholar
Cannella, A. A., Park, J. H., & Lee, H. U. (2008). Top management team functional background diversity and firm performance: Examining the roles of team member colocation and environmental uncertainty. Academy of Management Journal, 51, 768–784.Google Scholar
Carmeli, A., & Halevi, M. Y. (2009). How top management team behavioral integration and behavioral complexity enable organizational ambidexterity: The moderating role of contextual ambidexterity. The Leadership Quarterly, 20, 207–218.Google Scholar
Chan, K. Y., & Drasgow, F. (2001). Toward a theory of individual differences and leadership: Motivation to lead. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 481–498.Google Scholar
Chang, C.-H., & Johnson, R. E. (2010). Not all leader-member exchanges are created equal: Importance of leader relational identity. The Leadership Quarterly, 21, 796–808.Google Scholar
Ciulla, J. F. (2011). Ethics and effectiveness. In Day, D. V., & Antonakis, J. (Eds.), The nature of leadership (2nd ed., pp. 525–529). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1985). The NEO personality inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Crawford, E. R., & LePine, J. A. (2013). A configural theory of team processes: Accounting for the structure of taskwork and teamwork. Academy of Management Review, 38, 32–48.Google Scholar
Day, D. V. (2012). Leadership. In Kozlowski, S. W. J. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of organizational psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 696–729). New York, NY: Oxford University.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Day, D. V., & Lord, R. G. (1988). Executive leadership and organizational performance: Suggestions for a new theory and methodology. Journal of Management, 14(3), 453–464.Google Scholar
Day, D. V., & Sin, H. P. (2011). Longitudinal tests of an integrative model of leader development: Charting and understanding developmental trajectories. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(3), 545–560.Google Scholar
Day, D. V., Harrison, M. M., & Halpin, S. M. (2009). An integrative approach to leader development: Connecting adult development, identity, and expertise. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
DeGroot, T., Aime, F., Johnson, S. G., & Klumper, D. (2011). Does talking the talk help walking the walk? An examination of the effect of vocal attractiveness in leader effectiveness. The Leadership Quarterly, 22, 680–689.Google Scholar
Dehaene, S., & Naccache, L. (2001). Towards a cognitive neuroscience of consciousness: Basic evidence and a workspace framework. Cognition, 79, 1–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeRue, D. S., & Ashford, S. J. (2010). Who will lead and who will follow? A social process of leadership identity construction in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 35, 627–647.Google Scholar
DeRue, D. S., Nahrgang, J. D., Wellman, N., & Humphrey, S. E. (2011). Trait and behavioral theories of leadership: An integration and meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Personnel Psychology, 64, 7–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1), 5–18.Google Scholar
Dijksterhuis, A., & Nordgren, L. F. (2006). A theory of unconscious thought. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 95–109.Google Scholar
Dinh, J. E., & Lord, R. G. (2012). Implications of dispositional and process views of traits for individual difference research in leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 23, 651–669.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dinh, J. E., & Lord, R. G. (2013, April). Implicit leadership theories and the dynamics of leadership perception. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Houston, TX.Google Scholar
Dinh, J. E., Lord, R. G., & Hoffman, E. L. (2014). Leadership perception and information processing: Influences of symbolic, connectionist, emotion, and embodied architectures. In Day, D. V. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of leadership and organizations. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Dragoni, L. (2005). Understanding the emergence of state goal orientation in organizational work groups: The role of leadership and multilevel climate perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1084–1095.Google Scholar
Dulebohn, J. H., Bommer, W. H., Liden, R. C., Brouer, R. L., & Ferris, G. R. (2012). A meta-analysis of antecedents and consequences of leader-member exchange integrating the past with an eye toward the future. Journal of Management, 38, 1715–1759.Google Scholar
Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109, 573–598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eden, D., & Leviatan, U. (1975). Implicit leadership theory as a determinant of the factor structure underlying supervisory behavior scales. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(6), 736–741.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2002). Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: Approach and avoidance goals in temperaments and goals. Journal of Applied Psychology and Social Psychology, 82, 804–818.Google Scholar
Ensari, N., & Murphy, S. E. (2003). Cross-cultural variations in leadership perceptions and attribution of charisma to the leader. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 92(1), 52–66.Google Scholar
Epitropaki, O., & Martin, R. (2004). Implicit leadership theories in applied settings: Factor structure, generalizability, and stability over time. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(2), 293–310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fleeson, W. (2001). Toward a structure and process-integrated view of personality: Traits as density distributions of states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(6), 1011–1027.Google Scholar
Foti, R. J., Bray, B. C., Thompson, N. J., & Allgood, S. F. (2012). Know thy self, know thy leader: Contributions of a pattern-oriented approach to examining leader perceptions. The Leadership Quarterly, 23, 702–717.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foti, R. J., & Hauenstein, N. M. A. (2007). Pattern and variable approaches in leadership emergence and effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 347–355.Google Scholar
Foti, R. J., Knee, R. E. Jr., & Backert, R. S. (2008). Multi-level implications of framing leadership perceptions as a dynamic process. The Leadership Quarterly, 19(2), 178–194.Google Scholar
Foti, R. J., & Lord, R. G. (1987). Prototypes and scripts: The effects of alternative methods of processing information on rating accuracy. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 39(3), 318–340.Google Scholar
Freeman, J. B., & Ambady, N. (2011). A dynamic interactive theory of person construal. Psychological Review, 118, 247–279.Google Scholar
Gardner, W. L., Lowe, K. B., Moss, T. W., Mahoney, K. T., & Cogliser, C. C. (2010). Scholarly leadership of the study of leadership: A review of The Leadership Quarterly's second decade, 2000–2009. The Leadership Quarterly, 21, 922–958.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gavetti, G., & Levinthal, D. (2000). Looking forward and looking backward: Cognitive and experiential search. Administrative Science Quarterly, 45(1), 113–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, J. M., & Zhou, J. (2007). Dual tuning in a supportive context: Joint contributions of positive mood, negative mood, and supervisory behaviors to employee creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 50, 605–622.Google Scholar
Giessner, S. R., & Schubert, T. W. (2007). High in the hierarchy: How vertical location and judgments of leaders' power are interrelated. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 104, 30–44.Google Scholar
Gillespie, N., & Dietz, G. (2009). Trust repair after an organization-level failure. Academy of Management Review, 34(1), 127–145.Google Scholar
Greene, B. (2005). The fabric of the cosmos: Space, time and the texture of reality. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Greene, B. (2011). The hidden reality: Parallel universes and the deep laws of the cosmos. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Gu, J., Zhong, C. B., & Page-Gould, E. (2012). Listen to your heart: When false somatic feedback shapes moral behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142, 307–312.Google Scholar
Gulati, R., Sytch, M., & Tatarynowicz, A. (2012). The rise and fall of small worlds: Exploring the dynamics of social structure. Organization Science, 23, 449–471.Google Scholar
Gully, S. M., Incalcaterra, K. A., Joshi, A., & Beaubien, J. M. (2002). A meta-analysis of team-efficacy, potency, and performance: Interdependence and level of analysis as moderators of observed relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(5), 819–832.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hackman, J. R., Wageman, R., & Fisher, C. M. (2009). Leading teams when the time is right: Finding the best moments to act. Organizational Dynamics, 38, 192–203.Google Scholar
Hall, R. J., & Lord, R. G. (1995). Multi-level information-processing explanations of followers' leadership perceptions. The Leadership Quarterly, 6(3), 265–287.Google Scholar
Hall, R. J., Workman, J. W., & Marchioro, C. A. (1998). Sex, task, and behavioral flexibility effects on leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 74, 1–32.Google Scholar
Hanges, P., Lord, R., & Dickson, M. (2000). An information-processing perspective on leadership and culture: A case for connectionist architecture. Applied Psychology, 49, 133–161.Google Scholar
Hannah, S. T., Lord, R. G., & Pearce, C. L. (2011). Leadership and collective requisite complexity. Organizational Psychology Review, 1, 215–238.Google Scholar
Hirsh, J. B., Mar, R. A., & Peterson, J. B. (2012). Psychological entropy: A framework for understanding uncertainty-related anxiety. Psychological Review, 119(2), 304.Google Scholar
House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 cultures. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Humphrey, S. E., Morgeson, F. P., & Mannor, M. J. (2009). Developing a theory of the strategic core of teams: A role composition model of team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(1), 48–61.Google Scholar
Hunt, J. G., Boal, K. B., & Dodge, G. E. (1999). The effects of visionary and crisis-responsive charisma on followers: An experimental examination of two kinds of charismatic leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 10, 423–448.Google Scholar
Hunter, S. T., Bedell-Avers, K. E., & Mumford, M. D. (2007). The typical leadership study: Assumptions, implications, and potential remedies. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(5), 435–446.Google Scholar
Ibarra, H., & Barbulescu, R. (2010). Identity as narrative: Prevalence, effectiveness, and consequences of narrative identity work in macro work role transitions. The Academy of Management Review, 35, 135–154.Google Scholar
Jaques, E. (1990). In praise of hierarchy. Harvard Business Review, 68(1), 127–134.Google Scholar
Jobs, S. (2005, June). Graduation commencement address. Speech presented at the Standford University Graduation Commencement Ceremony, Stanford, CA.Google Scholar
Johnson, R. E., & Lord, R. G. (2010). Implicit effects of justice on self-identity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 681–695.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, R. E., & Saboe, K. N. (2011). Measuring implicit traits in organizational research: Development of an indirect measure of employee implicit self-concept. Organizational Research Methods, 14(3), 530–547.Google Scholar
Johnson, S. K. (2008). I second that emotion: Effects of emotional contagion and affect at work on leader and follower outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 1–19.Google Scholar
Jokisaari, M., & Nurmi, J. E. (2009). Change in newcomers' supervisor support and socialization outcomes after organizational entry. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 527–544.Google Scholar
Joyce, W. F. (2005). What really works: Building the 4+ 2 organization. Organizational Dynamics, 34, 118–129.Google Scholar
Judge, T. A., Bono, J. E., Ilies, R., & Gerhardt, M. W. (2002). Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 765–780.Google Scholar
Judge, T. A., Colbert, A. E., & Ilies, R. (2004). Intelligence and leadership: A quantitative review and test of theoretical propositions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 542–552.Google Scholar
Kaiser, R. B., Hogan, R., & Craig, S. B. (2008). Leadership and the fate of organizations. American Psychologist, 63, 96–110.Google Scholar
Kark, R., & Van Dijk, K. (2007). Motivation to lead, motivation to follow: The role of the self-regulatory focus in leadership processes. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 500–528.Google Scholar
Keller, T. (2003). Parental images as a guide to leadership sensemaking: An attachment perspective on implicit leadership theories. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, 141–160.Google Scholar
Koch, J. (2011). Inscribed strategies: Exploring the organizational nature of strategic lock-in. Organization Studies, 32(3), 337–363.Google Scholar
Koehler, D. J., White, R. J., & John, L. K. (2012). Good intentions, optimistic self-predictions, and missed opportunities. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2, 90–96.Google Scholar
Kuppens, P., Oravecz, Z., & Tuerlinckx, F. (2010). Feelings change: Accounting for individual differences in the temporal dynamics of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 1042–1060.Google Scholar
Leavitt, K., Reynolds, S. J., Barnes, C. M., Schilpzand, P., & Hannah, S. T. (2012). Different hats, different obligations: Plural occupational identities and situated moral judgments. Academy of Management Journal, 1, 1316–1333.Google Scholar
Lee, A. Y., Aaker, J. L., & Gardner, W. L. (2000). The pleasures and pains of distinct self-construals: The role of interdependence in regulatory focus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 1122–1134.Google Scholar
Lord, R. G. (1977). Functional leadership behavior: Measurement and relation to social power and leadership perceptions. Administrative Science Quarterly, 22(1977), 114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lord, R. G. (1985). An information processing approach to social perceptions, leadership and behavioral measurement in organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 7, 87–128.Google Scholar
Lord, R. G., & Brown, D. J. (2004). Leadership processes and follower self-identity. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Lord, R. G., Brown, D. J., & Harvey, J. L. (2001). System constraints on leadership perceptions, behavior and influence: An example of connectionist level processes. In Hogg, M. A. & Tindale, R. S. (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Group processes (Vol. 3, pp. 283–310). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.Google Scholar
Lord, R. G., Diefendorff, J. M., Schmidt, A. M., & Hall, R. J. (2010). Self-regulation at work. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 543–568.Google Scholar
Lord, R. G., Dinh, J. E., & Hoffman, E. L. (in review). Time and emergent quantum organizational processes: A time-sensitive theory of individuals, groups, and organizations.Google Scholar
Lord, R. G., Foti, R. J., & De Vader, C. L. (1984). A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34(3), 343–378.Google Scholar
Lord, R. G., & Hall, R. J. (2005). Identity, deep structure and the development of leadership skill. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(4), 591–615.Google Scholar
Lord, R. G., Hannah, S. T., & Jennings, P. L. (2011). A framework for understanding leadership and individual requisite complexity. Organizational Psychology Review, 1, 104–127.Google Scholar
Lord, R. G., & Maher, K. J. (1991). Cognitive theory in industrial and organizational psychology. In Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2, 1–62).Google Scholar
Lord, R. G., & Shondrick, S. J. (2011). Leadership and knowledge: Symbolic, connectionist, and embodied perspectives. The Leadership Quarterly, 22, 207–222.Google Scholar
Lorenz, E. N. (1995). The essence of chaos. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
MacKay, R. B., & Chia, R. (2013). Choice, change, and unintended consequences in strategic change: A process understanding of the rise and fall of Northco automotive. Academy of Management Journal, 56, 208–230.Google Scholar
MacKay, R. B., & McKiernan, P. (2004). The role of hindsight in foresight: Refining strategic reasoning. Futures, 36(2), 161–179.Google Scholar
Mann, R. D. (1959). A review of the relationships between personality and performance in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 241–270.Google Scholar
Marion, R., & Uhl-Bien, M. (2002). Leadership in complex organizations. The Leadership Quarterly, 12(4), 389–418.Google Scholar
Mathieu, J. E., & Rapp, T. L. (2009). Laying the foundation for successful team performance trajectories: The roles of team charters and performance strategies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(1), 90–103.Google Scholar
McGregor, I., Nashville, K., Mann, N., & Phills, C. E. (2010). Anxious uncertainty and reactive approach motivation (RAM). Personality Processes and Individual Differences, 99, 133–147.Google Scholar
Meindl, J. R. (1995). The romance of leadership as a follower-centric theory: A social constructionist approach. The Leadership Quarterly, 6(3), 329–341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgeson, F. P. (2005). The external leadership of self-management teams: Intervening in the context of novel and disruptive events. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 497–508.Google Scholar
Morrision, E. W. (2002). Newcomers' relationships: The role of social network ties during socialization. Academy of Management Journal, 45, 1149–1160.Google Scholar
Mumford, T. V., Campion, M. A., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). The leadership skills strataplex: Leadership skill requirements across organizational levels. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(2), 154–166.Google Scholar
Nahrgang, J. D., Morgeson, F. P., & Ilies, R. (2009). The development of leader–member exchanges: Exploring how personality and performance influence leader and member relationships over time. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108, 256–266.Google Scholar
Naidoo, L. J., Kohari, N. E., Lord, R. G., & DuBois, D. A. (2010). “Seeing” is retrieving: Recovering emotional content in leadership ratings through visualization. The Leadership Quarterly, 21, 886–900.Google Scholar
Naidoo, L. J., & Lord, R. G. (2008). Speech imagery and perceptions of charisma: The mediating role of positive affect. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 283–296.Google Scholar
Neal, D. T., Wood, W., Wu, M., & Kurlander, D. (2011). The pull of the past when do habits persist despite conflict with motives? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(11), 1428–1437.Google Scholar
Neumann, R., & Strack, F. (2000). Approach and avoidance: The influence of proprioceptive and exteroceptive cues on encoding of affective information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(1), 39.Google Scholar
Niedenthal, P. M., Barsalou, L. W., Winkielman, P., Krauth-Gruber, S., & Ric, F. (2005). Embodiment in attitudes, social perception, and emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(3), 184–211.Google Scholar
O'Malley, A. L., Ritchie, S. A., Lord, R. G., Gregory, J. B., & Young, C. M. (2009). Incorporating embodied cognitions into sensemaking theory: A theoretical examination of embodied processes in a leadership context. Current Topics in Management, 14, 151–182.Google Scholar
Panksepp, J. (2000). The riddle of laughter neural and psychoevolutionary underpinnings of joy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(6), 183–186.Google Scholar
Pearce, C. L., & Conger, J. A. (2003). Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Phillips, J. S., & Lord, R. G. (1982). Schematic information processing and perceptions of leadership in problem-solving groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67(4), 486.Google Scholar
Plowman, D. A., Baker, T. E., Kulkarni, M., Solansky, S. T., & Travis, D. V. (2007). Radical change accidentally: The emergence and amplification of small change. Academy of Management Journal, 80, 515–545.Google Scholar
Ployhart, R. E., & Moliterno, T. P. (2011). Emergence of the human capital resource: A multilevel model. Academy of Management Review, 36, 127–150.Google Scholar
Read, S. J., Monroe, B. M., Brownstein, A. L., Yang, Y., Chopra, G., & Miller, L. C. (2010). A neural network model of the structure and dynamics of human personality. Psychological Review, 117, 62–92.Google Scholar
Rosette, A. S., Leonardelli, G. J., & Phillips, K. W. (2008). The White standard: Racial bias in leader categorization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 758–777.Google Scholar
Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 173–220.Google Scholar
Rush, M. C., Phillips, J. S., & Lord, R. G. (1981). Effects of a temporal delay in rating on leader behavior descriptions: A laboratory investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66(4), 442–450.Google Scholar
Rush, M. C., Thomas, J. C., & Lord, R. G. (1977). Implicit leadership theory: A potential threat to the internal validity of leader behavior questionnaires. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 20, 93–110.Google Scholar
Ryan, M. K., Haslam, A. S., Hersby, M. D., & Bongiorno, R. (2011). Think crisis-think female: The glass cliff and contextual variation in the think manager-think male stereotype. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 470–484.Google Scholar
Schaubroeck, J. M., Hannah, S. T., Avolio, B. J., Kozlowski, S. W., Lord, R. G., Treviño, L. K., … Peng, A. C. (2012). Embedding ethical leadership within and across organization levels. Academy of Management Journal, 55(5), 1053–1078.Google Scholar
Scott, K., & Brown, D. J. (2006). Female first, leader second: Gender bias in the encoding of leadership behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 101, 230–242.Google Scholar
Shamay-Tsoory, S. G. (2011). The neural bases for empathy. The Neuroscientist, 17(1), 18–24.Google Scholar
Shamir, B. (2007). From passive recipients to active co-producers. In Shamir, B., Pillai, R., Bligh, M., & Uhl-Bien, M. (Eds.), Follower-centered perspectives on leadership: A tribute to J. R. Meindl. Stamford, CT: Information Age.Google Scholar
Shondrick, S. J., Dinh, J. E., & Lord, R. G. (2010). Developments in implicit leadership theory and cognitive science: Applications to improving measurement and understanding alternatives to hierarchical leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(6), 959–978.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith-Jentsch, K. A., Kraiger, K., Cannon-Bowers, J. A., & Salas, E. (2009). Do familiar teammates request and accept more backup? Transactive memory in air traffic control. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 51(2), 181–192.Google Scholar
Sonnentag, S. (2012). Time in organizational research: Catching up on a long neglected topic in order to improve theory. Organizational Psychology Review, 2, 361–368.Google Scholar
Staw, B. M. (1975). Attribution of the “causes” of performance: A general alternative interpretation of cross-sectional research on organizations. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13, 414–432.Google Scholar
Sy, T., Shore, L. M., Strauss, J., Shore, T. H., Tram, S., Whiteley, P., & Ikeda-Muromachi, K. (2010). Leadership perceptions as a function of race-occupation fit: The case of Asian Americans. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 902–919.Google Scholar
Tiedens, L. Z. (2001). Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: The effect of negative emotion expression on social status conferral. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 86–94.Google Scholar
Trichas, S., & Schyns, B. (2012). The face of leadership: Perceiving leaders from facial expression. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), 545–566.Google Scholar
Trichas, S., Schyns, B., & Lord, R. G. (2013). “Facing” leaders: Facial expressions and leadership perceptions. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
Uher, J. (2013). Personality psychology: Lexical approaches, assessment methods, and trait concepts reveal only half of the story—Why it is time for a paradigm shift. Integrative Psychology and Behavioral Science, 47, 1–55.Google Scholar
Uhl-Bien, M., & Marion, R. (2009). Complexity leadership in bureaucratic forms of organizing: A meso model. The Leadership Quarterly, 20, 631–650.Google Scholar
Uhl-Bien, M., Marion, R., & McKelvey, B. (2007). Complexity leadership theory: Shifting leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era. The Leadership Quarterly, 18, 298–318.Google Scholar
van Knippenberg, D., van Knippenberg, B., De Cremer, D., & Hogg, M. A. (2004). Leadership, self, and identity: A review and research agenda. The Leadership Quarterly, 15, 825–856.Google Scholar
van Quaquebeke, N., van Knippenberg, D., & Brodbeck, F. C. (2011). More than meets the eye: The role of subordinates' self-perceptions in leader categorization processes. The Leadership Quarterly, 22, 367–382.Google Scholar
Walumbwa, F. O., Mayer, D. M., Wang, P., Wang, H., Workman, K., & Christensen, A. L. (2011). Linking ethical leadership to employee performance: The roles of leader–member exchange, self-efficacy, and organizational identification. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 115(2), 204–213.Google Scholar
Weick, K. E. (1993). The collapse of sensemaking in organizations: The Mann Gulch disaster. Administrative Science Quarterly, 628–652.Google Scholar
Weiss, H. M., & Adler, S. (1981). Cognitive complexity and the structure of implicit leadership theories. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 69–78.Google Scholar
Wolff, S. B., Pescosolido, A. T., & Druskat, V. U. (2002). Emotional intelligence as the basis of leadership emergence in self-managing teams. The Leadership Quarterly, 13, 505–522.Google Scholar