Published online by Cambridge University Press: 18 March 2013
In the light of what appears to be a growing consensus that historicist and postmodern thought undermines the credibility of appeals to women's experience as a source of theological and moral knowledge, I assess whether these criticisms do indeed discredit appeals to experience as a legitimate source of knowledge and norm for feminist theology. While such critiques pose insightful challenges to assumptions underlying the appeal to experience, I argue that they do not definitively discredit the appeal to experience itself. Drawing on trauma theory and the work of Margaret Farley and Martha Nussbaum, I seek to show how women's experiences can be defended as a credible source of knowledge and a norm for feminist theology.
1 See Fulkerson, Mary McClintock, Changing the Subject (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994)Google Scholar; Chopp, Rebecca, “Feminist Queries and Metaphysical Musings,” Modern Theology 11/1 (1995): 47–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hogan, Linda, From Women's Experience to Feminist Theology (Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), 168–172.Google Scholar
2 Davaney, Sheila, “Continuing the Story, but Departing the Text,” in Horizons in Feminist Theology: Identity, Tradition, and Norms, ed. Chopp, Rebecca and Davaney, Sheila (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997), 198–214Google Scholar; “Limits of the Appeal to Women's Experience,” in Shaping New Vision: Gender Values in America, ed. Atkinson, Clarissa W. et al. (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1987), 31–50.Google Scholar
3 Davaney, , Pragmatic Historicism: A Theology for the Twenty-First Century (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000), 51–52.Google Scholar
4 Davaney, , “Continuing the Story, but Departing the Text,” 203–4.Google Scholar
5 Davaney, , Pragmatic Historicism: A Theology for the Twenty-First Century, 23.Google Scholar
6 Davaney, , “Continuing the Story,” 209.Google Scholar
7 Davaney, , “Limits of the Appeal to Women's Experience,” 45.Google Scholar
8 Davaney, , Pragmatic Historicism, 23.Google Scholar
9 Davaney, , “Limits of the Appeal to Women's Experience,” 46.Google Scholar
10 Davaney, , “Problems in Feminist Theory: Historicity and the Search for Sure Foundations” in Embodied Love: Sensuality and Relationship as Feminist Values, eds. Cooey, Paula M. et al. (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1987), 83.Google Scholar
11 Ruether, , Sexism and God-talk: Toward a Feminist Theology (Boston: Beacon Press, 1983), 18–19.Google Scholar
12 Davaney, , “Limits of the Appeal to Women's Experience,” 35.Google Scholar
13 Davaney, , “Problems in Feminist Theory,” 37–38.Google Scholar
14 Davaney, , “Continuing the Story,” 210.Google Scholar
15 Davaney, , Pragmatic Historicism, 212.Google Scholar
16 Ibid., 162.
17 Farley, Margaret, “Feminism and Universal Morality,” in Prospects for a Common Morality, eds. Outka, Gene and Reeder, John (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 179.Google Scholar
18 Ibid.
19 Teevan, Donna, “Challenges to the Role of Theological Anthropology in Feminist Theologies,” Theological Studies 64 (2003): 582–597.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
20 Davaney, , “Limits of the Appeal to Women's Experience,” 45.Google Scholar
21 For more discussion on how experience inevitably functions as a credible source of knowledge and norm in moral discernment, see Farley, Margaret, “The Role of Experience in Moral Discernment,” in Christian Ethics: Problems and Prospects, eds. Cahill, Lisa and Childress, James (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 1996), 134–151.Google Scholar
22 See, for instance, Staub, Ervin, “Notes on Cultures of Violence, Cultures of Caring and Peace, and the Fulfillment of Basic Human Needs,” Political Psychology 24/1 (2003): 1–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ochaita, Esperanza and Espinosa, Angeles, “Needs of Children and Adolescents as a Basis for the Justification of their Rights,” The International Journal of Children's Rights 9 (2001): 313–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Black, Dora and Newman, Martin, “Children: Secondary Victims of Domestic Violence,” in International Handbook of Human Response to Trauma, eds. Shalev, Arieh et al. , (New York: Kluwer Academic, 2000), 129–138)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Roberts, Gwenneth, “Evaluating the Prevalence and Impact of Domestic Violence,” in International Handbook of Human Response to Trauma, eds. Shalev, Arieh et al. , (New York: Kluwer Academic, 2000), 139–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Yuksel, Sahika, “Collusion and Denial of Childhood Sexual Trauma in Traditional Societies,” in International Handbook of Human Response to Trauma, eds. Shalev, Arieh et al. , (New York: Kluwer Academic, 2000), 153–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Arcel, Libby, “Deliberate Sexual Torture of Women in War,” in International Handbook of Human Response to Trauma, eds. Shalev, Arieh et al. , (New York: Kluwer Academic, 2000), 179–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
23 See footnote 22; see also Krippner, Stanley and McIntyre, Teresa, eds., The Psychological Impact of War Trauma on Civilians: An International Perspective (Westport: Praeger, 2003)Google Scholar; Robben, Antonius and Suarez-Orozco, Marcelo eds., Cultures Under Siege (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).Google Scholar
24 Davaney, , Pragmatic Historicism, 24.Google Scholar
25 Ibid., 183.
26 For an account of the effects of trauma on adults and children, see footnotes 22 and 23. For an account of the effects of sexual violence on children's self, agency, and relationality, see Beste, Jennifer, “Receiving and Responding to God's Grace: A Re-Examination in Light of Trauma Theory,” Journal of the Society of Christian Ethics 23/1 (2003): 1–19Google Scholar; Russell, Diana, “The Prevalence, Trauma, and Sociocultural Causes of Incestuous Abuse of Females: A Human Rights' Issue,” in Beyond Trauma, ed. Kleber, Rolf (New York: Plenum Press, 1995), 171–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Herman, Judith, Trauma and Recovery (New York: Basic Books, 1992)Google Scholar; Kolk, Bessel Van der et al. , eds, Tramautic Stress (New York: Guilford Press, 1996)Google Scholar; Terr, Lenore, “Childhood Traumas: An Outline and Overview,” American Journal of Psychiatry 148:1 (1991): 10–20Google ScholarPubMed; Chu, J., and Dill, D., “Dissociative Symptoms in Relation to Child Physical and Sexual Abuse,” American Journal of Psychiatry 147 (1990): 887–92Google ScholarPubMed; Peters, D. and Range, L., “Childhood Sexual Abuse and Current Suicidality in College Women and Men,” Child Abuse and Neglect 19 (1995): 335–41CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Krahé, Barbara, “Child Sexual Abuse and Revictimization in Adolescence and Adulthood,” Post-Traumatic Stress Theory, eds. Harvey, Jon and Pauwels, Brian (Philadelphia: Brunner/Mazel, 2000), 52.Google Scholar
27 See footnote 22 and 23; see also Williams, Simon, “Is Anybody There? Critical Realism, Chronic Illness and the Disability Debate,” Sociology of Health and Illness 21:6 (1999): 797–819CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Keck, Margaret and Sikkink, Kathryn, Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1998).Google Scholar
28 Nussbaum, Martha, Sex and Social Justice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 38.Google Scholar
29 Nussbaum, Martha, Women and Human Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 78–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30 Browning, Don, “Feminism, Family, and Women's Rights: A Hermeneutic Realist Perspective,” Zygon 38 (2003): 319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
31 Note that Davaney does not find this kind of appeal to women's experiences problematic as long as truth claims remain at the local, particular level. She affirms experience as a source for analyzing the historically particular situations of women and how women's subjectivities emerge historically.
32 I am using the term “Third World” because feminists who comprise the Women's Commission of the “Ecumenical Association of Third World Theologians” (EATWOT) use it to describe themselves. See Fabella, Virginia and Oduyoye, Mercy Amba, eds., With Passion and Compassion: Third World Women Doing Theology (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1988).Google Scholar
33 Mananzan, Mary, ed., Women Resisting Violence: Spirituality for Life (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1996).Google Scholar
34 Letty Russell, “Spirituality, Struggle, and Cultural Violence,” in ibid., 20.
35 Elsa Tamez, “Cultural Violence Against Women in Latin America,” ibid., 1–10.
36 Jantzen, Grace, “Sources of Religious Knowledge,” Literature and Theology 10 (1996): 104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37 Hinton, Rosemary, “A Legacy of Inclusion: An Interview with Rosemary Radford Ruether,” Cross Currents 52 (2002): 28–37.Google Scholar
38 Farley, , “The Role of Experience,” 146.Google Scholar
39 For more discussion concerning how the rejection of a realist epistemology undercuts the normative claims of feminism, see Miles, Rebekah, Bonds of Freedom: Feminist Theology and Christian Realism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).CrossRefGoogle Scholar For an account of critical realism that takes historicist insights seriously, see Schweiker, William, Responsibility and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995).Google Scholar
40 Farley, Margaret, Personal Commitments: Beginning, Keeping, Changing (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1986).Google Scholar
41 Davaney, , Pragmatic Historicism, 51–52Google Scholar; “Continuing the Story,” 209.
42 Nussbaum, Martha, Women, Culture, and Development: A Study of Human Capabilities (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43 Cahill, Lisa, “Toward Global Ethics,” Theological Studies 63 (2002): 327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
44 Cf. Mananzan, ed. Women Resisting Violence.
45 Farley, , “The Role of Experience,” 147.Google Scholar
46 As noted earlier, Davaney defines ontological validity as the assertion that feminist theologians' perspective about God's desires for the fulfillment of women accords with God's actual purposes.
47 Riswold, Carryn, “A Religious Response Veiled in a Presidential Address: A Theological Study of Bush's Speech on 20 September 2001,” Political Theology 5 (2004): 39–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
48 Davaney might respond that the claim that God's empowering presence is undergirding their struggle against patriarchal domination still continues to legitimate their feminist perspectives and discredit the views of non-feminist women and their experiences of the divine. While this is a potential danger, remaining aware of the perspectival nature of knowing, the fallibility of their own perspectives, and appreciation of differences among women should serve as an effective check against the temptation to assert that feminists by virtue of being feminists have special access to God's purposes.
49 In defense of this interpretation, Beverly Harrison argues that early feminist theologians, with the exception of Mary Daly, did not presume theological categories were ontological in the way assumed by classical theologians; they recognized that the foundations for their claims were situated, historical-cultural constructs. See Harrison, Beverly, “Feminist Theola(o)logies at the Millennium” in Liberating Eschatology: Essays in Honor of Letty Russell, eds. Farley, Margaret and Jones, Serene (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1999), 157.Google Scholar
50 Ruether, Rosemary, “Methodology in Women's Studies and Feminist Theology,” in Methodology of Religious Studies: The Interface with Women's Studies, ed. Sharma, Arvind (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 203.Google Scholar
51 Davaney, , “Problems in Feminist Theory,” 92.Google Scholar
52 Davaney criticizes Linnell Cady for seeking to retain principles of the Christian tradition that represent the whole of the tradition. See Davaney, , Pragmatic Historicism, 101–104.Google Scholar
53 Ibid.
54 Ibid., 152.
55 Ibid.
56 In my method of theological reflection, the importance of pragmatic criterion is grounded in the belief that God is passionately for the flourishing of human creation.
57 Davaney, , Pragmatic Historicism, 162.Google Scholar
58 Ibid., 156.
59 Davaney, , “Problems in Feminist Theory,” 92.Google Scholar
60 Wittegenstein, Ludwig, On Certainty, eds. Anscombe, G.E.M. and von Wright, G.H. (New York: Harper & Row, 1969), 29.Google Scholar
61 Davaney, , Pragmatic Historicism, 55.Google Scholar
62 Ibid.
63 Ibid., 95.
64 Cone, James, Martin and Malcolm and America: A Dream or a Nightmare? (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1991), 125.Google Scholar
65 Cf. King, Ursula, Feminist Theology from the Third World (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1994).Google Scholar
66 Farley, , “Feminism and Universal Morality,” 179Google Scholar; see also Cannon, Katie, “Foreword” in With Passion and Compassion, vii.Google Scholar
67 Davaney, Sheila, “Rethinking Theology and Religious Studies,” in Religious Studies, Theology, and the University, eds. Cady, Linell and Brown, Delwin (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 149.Google Scholar
68 Ibid., 151.