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To Be an Apolitical Political Scientist: A Chinese Immigrant Scholar and (Geo)politicized American Higher Education

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 July 2020

Qing Liu
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Abstract

While educating international students is celebrated as a means of promoting mutual understanding among nations, American higher education has always been entangled with geopolitics. This essay focuses on Tang Tsou, the Chinese scholar who came to the United States as a student in 1941, eventually becoming the nation's leading China expert and producing knowledge about China for the United States during the Cold War. It analyzes how Tsou navigated a complex political terrain in which his Chinese identity was both a professional asset and a liability. Examining Tsou's personal and professional decisions as well as his response to the politicization of his Chinese identity reveals the (geo)politicization of higher education more broadly.

Keywords

geopoliticsAmerican higher educationChinese identityobjectivityCold WarTang Tsouinternational students
Type
Articles
Information
History of Education Quarterly , Volume 60 , Issue 2 , May 2020 , pp. 129 - 155
Copyright
Copyright © 2020 History of Education Society

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Footnotes

Note on transliteration: The pinyin romanization system is widely used, and Tang Tsou should be converted to Dang Zou, or Zou Dang (following the Chinese practice that given names follow the surnames). Because Tang Tsou completed his career in the United States, he is identified accordingly. Out of respect for his own choice, this essay uses Tang Tsou as a transliteration of his name. In instances when other Chinese names are mentioned, I use the pinyin romanization system. For consistency, I follow the American practice of placing their given names first, as with Yizhuang Lu and Yelong Han. Exceptions include those whose personal names are familiar in the West. Thus, Chiang Kai-shek is used instead of Jieshi Jiang and Deng Xiaoping rather than Xiaoping Deng.

References

1 “Expert on Modern China Tang Tsou Dies at 80,” University of Chicago Chronicle 19, no. 20 (Aug. 12, 1999), https://chronicle.uchicago.edu/990812/tsou.shtml; Eric Pace, “Prof. Tang Tsou, 80, Authority on Modern China,” New York Times, Aug. 16, 1999, Sec. B, 8; Andy Davis, “U. of C. China Expert Tang Tsou,” Chicago Tribune, Aug. 12, 1999, Sec. 2, 9; and Stuart R. Schram, “Obituary-Tang Tsou: A Memorial,” China Quarterly no. 160 (Dec. 1999), 1057-59.

2 Chinese Advisory Committee on Cultural Relations in America, Directory of Chinese Members of American College and University Faculties, 1956-1957 (New York: Chinese Advisory Committee on Cultural Relations in America, 1957), 1-66.

3 See especially Bassett, Ross, The Technological Indian (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016Google Scholar; Bangcheng Pang, “Higher Education: A New Immigration Path to Chinese Students and Scholars” (PhD diss., Arizona State University, 2001); and Kevin Yang Shih, “Skilled Immigration, Higher Education, and Labor Markets” (PhD diss., University of California, Davis, 2015).

4 David Hollinger noted that before 1945 a professorate in the humanities and social sciences was overwhelmingly male and Anglo-Protestant. He argued that scholars of Jewish origin were the first group of nontraditional scholars who broke this barrier and entered the academic community in the two decades after 1945. Asian Americans and Hispanic Americans were absorbed into American academia only late in the twentieth century, especially in the wake of the civil rights movement and the Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965, which revolutionized the population's demographic base. Hollinger obviously did not notice the presence of this group of Chinese immigrant scholars in American academia during the 1950s. See Hollinger, David A., The Humanities and the Dynamics of Inclusion since World War II (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006Google Scholar.

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14 See especially Richmond, Yale, Cultural Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Tolvaisas, Tomas, “Cold War ‘Bridge-Building’: US Exchange Exhibits and Their Reception in the Soviet Union, 1959–1967,” Journal of Cold War Studies 12, no. 4 (Fall 2010), 3–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Tromly, Benjamin, Cold War Exiles and the CIA: Plotting to Free Russia (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2019Google Scholar.

15 For pre-1950s cultural contacts, see, for example, Fairbank, Wilma, America's Cultural Experiment in China, 1942–1949 (Washington, DC: US Department of State, 1976Google Scholar; Chiang, Yung-Chen, Social Engineering and the Social Sciences in China, 1919–1949 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001)Google Scholar; Fan, Shuhua, The Harvard-Yenching Institute and Cultural Engineering: Remaking the Humanities in China, 1924–1951 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2014Google Scholar; Shen, Grace Yen, Unearthing the Nation: Modern Geology and Nationalism in Republican China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and So, Richard Jean, Transpacific Community: America, China, and the Rise and Fall of a Cultural Network (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For the post–open door era, see Kallgren, Joyce K. and Simon, Denis Fred, eds., Educational Exchange: Essays on the Sino-American Experience (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 1987Google Scholar; Li, Cheng, ed., Bridging Minds across the Pacific: US-China Educational Exchange, 1978–2003 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2005Google Scholar; and Wang, Zuoyue, “US-China Scientific Exchange: A Case Study of State-Sponsored Scientific Internationalism during the Cold War and Beyond,” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 30, no. 1 (Jan. 1999), 249–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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20 Ninkovich, Frank, “Cultural Relations and American China Policy, 1942–1945,” Pacific Historical Review 49, no. 3 (Aug. 1980), 478CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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24 Tang Tsou, “A Study of the Development of the Scientific Approach in Political Studies in the United States: With Particular Emphasis on the Methodological Aspects of the Works of Charles E. Merriam and Harold D. Lasswell” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1951).

25 Leonard D. White to John B. Stewart, Jan. 13, 1953, box 2, folder 12, Faculty Files, 1942–1963, University of Chicago Department of Political Science Records, 1927–1964, University of Chicago Library (hereafter cited as Tang Tsou Faculty Files).

26 “ECA's $500,000 Lets Chinese Students Stay,” New York Times, March 31, 1949, 4.

27 “ECA Aid Available to Chinese Students,” News Bulletin of the Institute of International Education 25 (Nov. 1949), 19.

28 Han, “An Untold Story,” 80.

29 Cheng, Cindy I-Fen, Citizens of Asian America: Democracy and Race during the Cold War (New York: New York University Press, 2014)Google Scholar. Cheng observes that popular perceptions of Asian Americans as “foreigners-within” cast them as both (potential) “loyal citizens” who should be integrated into the dominant society and as (potential) “alien subversives” who should be deported. While my focus is different, my thinking about the Chinese immigrant scholars and the dual effect of the Cold War on them has been informed by her excellent work.

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31 James Reston, “Chinese Students in Country Stir Fight of US Agencies,” New York Times, March 9, 1951, 3.

32 Reston, “Chinese Students in Country Stir Fight of US Agencies.”

33 Roy Gibbons, “Act to Keep Chinese Scientist from City Out of Red Hands,” Chicago Tribune, July 27, 1955, 1.

34 Harrison E. Salisbury, “US Is Criticized on Chinese Students,” New York Times, June 3, 1955, 1.

35 Tang Tsou to Leonard D. White, March 22, 1954, Tang Tsou Faculty Files.

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37 Salisbury, “US Is Criticized on Chinese Students.”

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39 Wang, American Science in an Age of Anxiety.

40 Yizhuang Lu to Tang Tsou, Feb. 24, 1955, Tang Tsou Papers.

41 Samuel Shi-shin Kung, “Personal and Professional Problems of Chinese Students and Former Students in the New York Metropolitan Area” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1955), 32–33.

42 David Kaston to Tang Tsou, Jan. 24, 1952, Tang Tsou Faculty Files.

43 Tang Tsou to Leonard White, Jan. 3, 1955, Tang Tsou Faculty Files.

44 Tang Tsou to C. Herman Pritchett, June 3, 1953, Tang Tsou Faculty Files.

45 Tang Tsou to Hans Morgenthau, June 25, 1953, box 57, Tang Tsou folder, Hans Morgenthau Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC (hereafter cited as Hans Morgenthau Papers).

46 Leonard White to Tang Tsou, July 1, 1953, Tang Tsou Faculty Files.

47 Tang Tsou to Hans Morgenthau, Jan. 2, 1955, Hans Morgenthau Papers.

48 Tang Tsou to Leonard D. White, June 15, 1954, Tang Tsou Faculty Files.

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52 The most sensational story concerned Owen J. Lattimore, a Far East expert at Johns Hopkins University, described as the “top Russian espionage agent in this country.” The McCarran Committee recommended that he be indicted for perjury. Although the indictments were dismissed twice in court, Lattimore's academic life was ruined. He was suspended by Johns Hopkins after his indictment, and the Page School of International Relations, which had been under Lattimore's directorship, was closed. For a long time, Lattimore could not find a suitable appointment, and he was forced to move to England in the early 1960s. See Newman, Robert P., Owen Lattimore and the “Loss” of China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 356 and 385CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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54 Evans, John Fairbank and the American Understanding of Modern China, 154.

55 Greenberg, The Weimar Century, 211–255.

56 Tsou, “A Study of the Development of the Scientific Approach.”

57 Yizhuang Lu to Tang Tsou, March 17, 1955, box 25, family letters folder, Tang Tsou Papers.

58 Jewett, Science, Democracy, and the American University; and Solovey, Shaky Foundations.

59 Gordon, From Power to Prejudice, 103–131. See also Morris, Aldon, The Scholar Denied: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Birth of Modern Sociology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

60 Tang Tsou, “Remarks Made in Accepting the Achievement Award Conferred by Immigrants’ Service League of Chicago,” Feb. 2, 1972, box 8, general folder, Tang Tsou Papers.

61 Tsou, “Remarks Made in Accepting the Achievement Award,” Tang Tsou Papers.

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63 Tsou, America's Failure in China, ix.

64 Tsou, America's Failure in China, 591.

65 Tsou, America's Failure in China, ix

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68 Oscar Gass, “China, Russia &the US: II” Commentary, April 1967, 39; Mary C. Wright, review of America's Failure in China, by Tang Tsou, Mississippi Valley Historical Review 50, no. 3 (Dec. 1963), 484–85; “Lessons of Failure,”Newsweek 61, no. 23 (June 10, 1963), 108; Dorothy Borg, review of America's Failure in China, by Tang Tsou, Journal of Asian Studies 23, No. 2 (Feb. 1964), 302–304; Arthur Steiner, reviews of America's Failure in China, 1941–1950, by Tang Tsou, and How the Far East Was Lost: American Policy and the Creation of Communist China, 1941–1949, by Anthony Kubek, American Political Science Review 58, No. 1 (March 1964), 165–67; Frederick Nossal, “The Making of Mao,” “Review on America's Failure in China,”Saturday Review (July 13, 1963),: 24–25; John F. Melby, review of “Review on American's Failure in China, 1941–50, by Tang Tsou,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 350 (Nov. 1963), 169–170; and Ferrell, Robert H., “Our China Policy Reassessed,” Yale Review 43 (Autumn 1963), 105Google Scholar.

69 From a photocopy of an article by G. F. Hudson, “Scenes of Imperialism,” found in box 16, Book Reviews folder, Tsou Tang Papers. Tsou collected all the published reviews on his book and marked the comments on his “identity” and his “objectivity.”

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74 Joint Communiqué of the People's Republic of China and the United States of America (Feb. 28, 1972), http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zmgxs/doc/ctc/t36255.htm.

75 Wang, “Chinese American Scientists and US-China Scientific Relations,” 214.

76 Tang Tsou to Wenjin Zhang, Feb. 22, 1974, box 25, Trip to China folder, Tang Tsou Papers.

77 He made three trips to China: 1975, 1977, and 1986.

78 Tang Tsou, “Visit to China and Other Relevant Information,” Nov. 12, 1979, box 18, Next Trip to China folder, Tang Tsou Papers.

79 “Speech Given in Peking University by Tang Tsou,” April 29, 1986, box 25, China Trip folder, Tang Tsou Papers. See also Jinyun Cao, “Jindao zoudang laoshi” [To Memorialize Tsou Tang], Ershiyi Shiji 19 (1999), http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c055-199909001.pdf.

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81 Cao, “Jindao zoudang laoshi” [To Memorialize Tsou Tang].

82 Tang Tsou to D. Gale Johnson, Dec. 4, 1978, box 18, Next Trip to China folder, Tang Tsou Papers.

83 Tang Tsou, “Visit to China and Other Relevant Information,” Nov. 12, 1979, Tang Tsou Papers.

84 Tsou not only advised students from the PRC, but he also welcomed students from Taiwan. His most well-known student from Taiwan was Lien Chan, who later became chairman of the Nationalist Party.

85 Tsou, “Remarks Made in Accepting the Achievement Award,” Tang Tsou Papers.

86 Wang, “Chinese American Scientists and US-China Scientific Relations,” 214.

87 When Tsou retired from the board, the committee sent him a letter of appreciation as an active and dedicated member for many years. See Committee Scholarly Communication with the People's Republic of China to Tang Tsou, Jan. 18, 1988, box 6, Committee on US-China folder, Tang Tsou Papers.