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Popular Response to Public Education in the Reign of Tsar Alexander I (1801–1825)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 February 2017

Franklin A. Walker
Franklin A. Walker*
Affiliation:
Department of History, Loyola University of Chicago
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Extract

Under the influence of liberal mentors such as his former tutor the Swiss republican F.C. La Harpe, Tsar Alexander I of Russia set out to follow his grandmother Catherine II as an “enlightener” through developing her program of national education. He created a ministry of public education and promulgated laws to provide schools for all classes of the population from the level of the primary parish school to supply the most elementary educational needs of all children, to the more senior elementary district school in each county, to the gymnasium (the advanced provincial secondary school) and finally to the university. The successes and failures of his reform provide excellent measures of the aspirations, as well as the practices, of imperial Russia. Whatever differences may exist among historians on aspects of educational policy, there has been nearly unanimous agreement that while gains were made on the secondary and university levels, the results were dismal on the elementary levels. The village or parish schools especially were failures because the government did not fund them and local initiative was lacking. Adam B. Ulam has asserted that “public education was as yet on so small a scale that it could contribute little, whether good or bad, to national life.”

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History of Education Quarterly , Volume 24 , Issue 4 , Winter 1984 , pp. 527 - 543
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Copyright © 1984 by History of Education Society 

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References

Notes

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4. Information about local initiative may be found in the periodical press. The standard histories of education in Russia are based on ministry files which reflect the ministry's interest in higher and secondary schools. In the organizational pattern of the reform, the ministry through the curators supervised the work of the universities while the university faculties supervised the work of the lower schools. For purposes of educational administration, Russia was divided into six huge districts. University faculty members naturally had difficulty giving attention to village schools. Perhaps this circumstance accounts for the relative paucity of materials on local initiative in ministry accounts, compared with the rich materials in the periodical press.Google Scholar

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8. Polnoe sobranie zakonov Rossiskoi imperii s 1649 goda, 1st ser. (hereafter cited as PSZ), vol. 27, no. 20.407 (September 8, 1802), p. 249, vol. 28, no. 21.501 (November 5, 1804), pp. 631, 640. “What is it that leads us to a recognition of those great obligations which we must have towards (lawful) power, towards the fatherland, towards our neighbor?—Knowledge”—address of Nikolai Kreshchanovskii at the opening of a parish school in the village of a landlord, Periodicheskoe sochinenie o uspekhakh narodnago prosveshcheniia [Periodical works about the success of public education] (St. Petersburg, 1806), No. 15, p. 338. Mizko, Dmitry, director of schools for Ekaterinoslav, at the solemn opening of Ekaterinoslav Gymnasium, urged the relationship between the educational activities of the government and a prosperous, virtuous and peaceable population, where “superstition” based on “crudity” of understanding, had been removed, ibid. (1815), No. 13, p. 107. Such addresses, filled with eighteenth-century commonplaces, were frequently printed.Google Scholar

9. Praises of the ruler as an enlightener, heard at so many school ceremonies in Alexander's reign, were current also in the time of Catherine, as in the address of the teacher Ivan Karvanovskii at the opening May 2, 1789 of the Kiev Major Public School, Sbornik materialov dlia istorii prosveshcheniia v Rossii [Collection of materials for the history of education in Russia] vol. 1 (St. Petersburg, 1893), pp. 61–2.Google Scholar

10. Periodicheskoe sochinenie o uspekhakh narodnago prosveshcheniia (1806), No. 14, pp. 179–80.Google Scholar

11. Moskovskiia vedomosti [The Moscow Gazette] No. 1 January 1, 1804, p. 7.Google Scholar

12. Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti [The St. Petersburg Gazette] No. 31, April 15, 1804, p. 979.Google Scholar

13. Ibid., No. 26 March 31, 1805, p. 305.Google Scholar

14. Ibid., No. 86 October 27, 1805, p. 985.Google Scholar

15. Ibid., No. 9 February 1, 1810, pp. 127–8.Google Scholar

16. Severnaia pochta [The northern post] No. 36 May 5, 1815.Google Scholar

17. Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti No. 4 January 14, 1816, p. 31; Severnaia pochta No. 92 November 17, 1815.Google Scholar

18. Severnaia pochta No. 97 December 5, 1817.Google Scholar

19. Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti No. 96 December 1, 1805, pp. 1085–6.Google Scholar

20. Ibid. No. 92 November 17, 1808, p. 1348, No. 21 March 12, 1812, p. 322; Zhurnal Departamenta Narodnago Prosveshcheniia [Journal of the Department of Public Education] vol. 4, no. 2 (St. Petersburg, February, 1822): 152–3.Google Scholar

21. Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti No. 48 June 14, 1804, p. 1417, No. 57 July 15, 1804, p. 1695; Periodicheskoe sochinenie o uspekhakh narodnago prosveshcheniia (1804), No. 7, p. 72.Google Scholar

22. Sbornik postanovlenii po ministerstvu narodnago prosveshcheniia [Collection of decrees of the ministry of public education] vol. 1 (St. Petersburg, 1875), pp. 859–62.Google Scholar

23. Bliokh, I.S., Financy Rossii XIX stoletiia. Istoriia—statistika [The finances of Russia in the nineteenth century. History—statistics] vol. 1 (St. Petersburg, 1882); Periodicheskoe sochinenie o uspekhakh narodnago prosveshcheniia (1804) No. 5, pp. 14–6, No. 6, p. 46, No. 7, p. 66, (1805), No. 8, pp. 71–6, No. 13, pp. 23–39; Kniaz'kov, S.A. and Serbov, N.I., Ocherk istorii narodnago obrazovaniia v Rossii do epokhi reform A leksandra II [An outline of the history of public education in Russia until the epoch of the reforms of Alexander II] (Moscow, 1910), p. 175; Rozhdestvenskii, S.V., Ocherki po istorii sistem narodnago prosveshcheniia v Rossii v XVIII–XIX vekakh [Outlines of the history of the system of public education in Russia in the eighteenth-nineteenth centuries] vol. 1 (St. Petersburg, 1912) in Zapiski Istoriko-Filologicheskago Fakul'teta Imperatorskago S.-Peterburgskago Universiteta [Transactions of the Historical-Philological Faculty of the Imperial St. Petersburg University] vol. 104 CIV St. Petersburg, 1912), pp. 596–603; Rozhdestvenskii, , Istoricheskii obzor, pp. 51–2. Summaries of some of the larger donations may be found in Bogdanovich, Modest, Istoriia Tsarstvovaniia Imperatora Aleksandra I i Rossii v ego vremia [History of the reign of the Emperor Alexander I and the Russia of his times] 6 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1869–71) vol. 1, 156–8; vol. 3, 718–9; vol. 5, 214–6.Google Scholar

24. Zhurnal Komiteta Ministrov. Tsarstvovanie Imperatora Aleksandra I [Journal of the Committee of Ministers. The reign of Emperor Alexander I] 2 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1888–91) vol. 2, 37, 229, 367 (March 16, 1810, September 6, 1811, March 30, 1812).Google Scholar

25. Periodicheskoe sochinenie o uspekhakh narodnago prosveshcheniia (1805), No. 13, pp. 23–39.Google Scholar

26. PSZ vol. 27 No. 20.597 (January 26, 1803), p. 442. “Town societies” were to support parish schools in urban areas, “the parishioners” in the state owned villages and landlords were to arrange the finances of schools in privately owned villages, Sbornik postanovlenii vol. 1, 366.Google Scholar

27. Appendix to Bliokh, , Finantsy Rossii. Google Scholar

28. Moskovskiivedomosti No. 93 November 20, 1801, p. 2201. Although the Alexander Nobles' School in Tula was for the nobility, a Tula merchant donated 500 rubles, ibid. No. 29 April 9, 1802, p. 44.Google Scholar

29. Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti No. 59 July 25, 1802, p. 1558.Google Scholar

30. Ibid. No. 64 August 12, 1802, pp. 1632–3.Google Scholar

31. Severnyi vestnik vol. 4 (1804), pp. 317–21.Google Scholar

32. Periodicheskoe sochinenie o uspekhakh narodnago prosveshcheniia (1803) No. 2, pp. 158–62; Severnyi vestnik vol. 2 (1804), pp. 237–45. The school became known as the Demidov School of Higher Studies.Google Scholar

33. Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti No. 20 March 28, 1812, p. 308.Google Scholar

34. Periodicheskoe sochinenie o uspekhakh narodnago prosveshcheniia (1803) No. 2, pp. 175–6; Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti No. 23 March 18, 1804, p. 707.Google Scholar

35. PSZ vol. 28 No. 21.497 (November 5, 1804), pp. 569–70.Google Scholar

36. Sbornik postanovlenii vol. 1, 466–7, 975–6.Google Scholar

37. Medynskii, , Istoriia russkoi pedagogii, pp. 125–6; Sbornik postanovlenii vol. 1, 1044–50.Google Scholar

38. In 1813 there were more than 30 private pensions in the St. Petersburg area. Sbornik postanovlenii vol. 1, 810.Google Scholar

39. Moskovskie vedomosti No. 2 January 5, 1807, pp. 23–4; Periodicheskoe sochinenie o uspekhakh narodnago prosveshcheniia (1806) No. 5, p. 260; Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti No. 7 January 24, 1808, p. 77. A Kostroma merchant gave 1,000 rubles to the gymnasium there, ibid. No. 2 January 5, 1812, p. 14. The list of donors to the gymnasium in Viatka (opened in November, 1811) includes a bishop, a number of priests, government officials, nobles, teachers and merchants, ibid. No. 4 January 12, 1812, p. 38. Later a Viatka merchant gave 4,000 rubles to the gymnasium and a merchant in Kharkov 2,500 rubles to the district school, ibid. No. 21 March 12, 1812, p. 323. A merchant in Simbirsk province and the district judge each granted 500 rubles for a school house and for the teacher's salary when the minor public school was turned into a district school, ibid. No. 65 August 14, 1808, p. 975. The list of donations for a district school in Vorovsk in 1808 includes 100 rubles from the “town community,” along with minor donations of from 25 to two rubles from town officials, judges, merchants and teachers to total 309 rubles, 50 copecks, ibid. No. 56 July 13, 1809, pp. 731–2.Google Scholar

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50. The marshal of the nobility in Rogachev along with prominent officials and “citizens” celebrated the birthday of the emperor by presenting 850 rubles and some books to the local school. Earlier they had pledged the sums necessary to build the school, but whether it was a parish or a district school or a combination of the two is not made clear, Severnaia pochta No. 2 January 7, 1811.Google Scholar

51. Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti No. 67 August 20, 1820, p. 818.Google Scholar

52. A Colonel Polivanov, who had been chosen by the nobility of Iaroslavl province as the honorary supervisor of a district school in Danilov, purchased a two-story house at a cost of 4,000 rubles, while the “citizen” Ezhevoz, the regular supervisor of the school, persuaded the “town society” to grant 400 rubles annually for maintenance; Ezhevoz himself made a one-time donation of a thousand rubles, ibid. No. 9 January 31, 1813, p. 83. The honorary supervisor of the district school in Novosil, Tula province, as the district marshal of the nobility persuaded the nobles to pledge 2,250 rubles for educating children of the poor nobility. He himself donated 4,727 rubles, ibid. No. 26 April 1, 1821, p. 314. When the minor public school in Dorogobuzh, Smolensk province, was turned into a district school, a parish school was established along with it. The honorary supervisor donated 500 rubles, pledged an annual gift of 250 rubles and promised as well to supply a library to cost at least 1,000 rubles. The “town society” pledged 230 rubles a year for the parish school, while various individuals donated 986 rubles, Zhurnal Departamenta Narodnago Prosveshcheniia vol. 3 (September, 1821), pp. 100–1.Google Scholar

53. Severnaia pochta No. 69 August 28, 1815.Google Scholar

54. Ibid. No. 4 January 12, 1816.Google Scholar

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56. Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti No. 13 February 13, 1806, p. 125.Google Scholar

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59. Ibid. No. 38 May 11, 1817, p. 401.Google Scholar

60. Ibid. No. 28 April 5, 1812, p. 431.Google Scholar

61. Ibid. No. 104 December 29, 1814, p. 1041.Google Scholar

62. As for example ibid. No. 12 February 11, 1810, p. 176; Periodicheskoe sochinenie o uspekhakh narodnago prosveshcheniia (1810) No. 26, p. 239.Google Scholar

63. Periodicheskoe sochinenie o uspekhakh narodnago prosveshcheniia (1809) No. 22, p. 204.Google Scholar

64. Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti No. 38 May 11, 1809, p. 483.Google Scholar

65. Severnaia pochta No. 10 February 24, 1812.Google Scholar

66. Figures which Hans cites show there were 600 parish schools in 1825, Hans, Nicholas, History of Russian Educational Policy (1701–1917) (London, 1931), p. 59. It is not possible to determine how many of these were in villages and how many in towns, but Hans believes they were for the most part not in rural areas, Hans, Nicholas, The Russian Tradition in Education (London, 1963), p. 21. For the view that there were virtually no schools for the peasant: Simkovitch, Valdimir G. “The history of the school in Russia,” Educational Review (May, 1907): 506; Leary, Daniel Bell, Education and Autocracy in Russia. From the Origins to the Bolsheviki (Buffalo, 1919), pp. 52–3; Kaidonova, O.V., Ocherki po istorii narodnago obrazovaniia v Rossii i SSSR no osnove lichnogo opyta i nabliudenii [Outlines of the history of public education in Russia and the USSR on the basis of personal experience and observation] 2 vols. (Brussels, 1938–9) vol. 1, 108.Google Scholar

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69. Ibid. No. 78 September 28, 1815, p. 83, one school with 38 pupils, a second with ten and a third with 19.Google Scholar

70. Ibid. No. 34 April 27, 1815, p. 343.Google Scholar

71. Ibid. No. 42 May 26, 1816, p. 411.Google Scholar

72. Ibid. No. 19 March 7, 1816, p. 179.Google Scholar

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74. Ibid. No. 80 October 5, 1809, p. 1012; No. 39 May 14, 1812, p. 603; No. 44 May 31, 1812, p. 68; No. 37 May 7, 1818, p. 407; No. 55 July 11, 1819, p. 625; No. 67 August 20, 1820, p. 818; No. 68 August 24, 1812; Periodicheskoe sochinenie o uspekhakh narodnago prosveshcheniia (1810) No. 26, p. 239; (1813) No. 24, p. 140.Google Scholar

75. Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti No. 25 May 2, 1813, p. 384.Google Scholar

76. Ibid. No. 95 November 27, 1814, p. 957.Google Scholar

77. Ibid. No. 7 January 23, 1817, p. 59.Google Scholar

78. Ibid. No. 13 January 13, 1817, p. 123.Google Scholar

79. As for example, town of Griazovets, , ibid. No. 8 January 28, 1821, p. 83.Google Scholar

80. Zhurnal Departamenta Narodnago Prosveshcheniia vol. 3 (September, 1821), p. 98.Google Scholar

81. Zhurnal Komiteta Ministrov vol. 2 438–9 (May 11, 1812); Sanktpeterburgskiia vedomosti No. 44 May 31, 1812, p. 688; Periodic heskoe sochinenie o uspekhakh narodnago prosveshcheniia (1813) No. 34, p. 140.Google Scholar

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